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'Deporte y Cambio Social': Women's Empowerment SDP Program 'Deporte y Cambio Social': Women's Empowerment SDP Program in Mexico : Sofia Espana Perez
West Virginia University, se0015@mix.wvu.edu
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Espana Perez, Sofia, "'Deporte y Cambio Social': Women's Empowerment SDP Program in Mexico" (2021).
Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports. 8091.
https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd/8091
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‘Deporte y Cambio Social’:
Women’s Empowerment SDP program in Mexico
Sofía España Pérez
Dissertation
Submitted to the College of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences
at West Virginia University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in
Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology
Jack C. Watson, II, Ph. D., Chair
Cheyenne Luzynski, Ph.D.
Samuel Zizzi, Ed. D.
Scott Barnicle, Ph.D.
Department of Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology
Morgantown, West Virginia
2021
Keywords: Sport for development, women’s empowerment, women in Mexico
Copyright 2021 Sofía España Pérez
Abstract
‘Deporte y Cambio Social’:
Women’s Empowerment SDP program in Mexico
Sofia España Pérez
Mexico is ranked as the second lowest country in the world in labor force participation, and
income and wage disparities specific to women (Gender Gap Report, 2019). “Deporte y Cambio
Social” was a train-the-trainer sport-based program grounded in the Social Change Model (SCM;
HERI, 1996) that used soccer as a vehicle to explore women empowerment and leadership
development in Mexico. Three semi-structured focus group interviews were conducted with 18
Mexican women (n = 10) and men (n = 8; Mage = 23) coaches who completed the program.
Using a social constructivist framework, reflexive thematic analysis was used to examine the
data. Participants reported that their perceptions of leadership and gender changed, and they
identified SCM-related and non SCM-related values as program outcomes alongside increasing
their knowledge and desire to create social change for Mexican women. The utility of the SCM
within the sport context is under explored and provides opportunity for further research. Future
programming should focus on increasing community members’ awareness of deeply ingrained
gender stereotypes and leadership inequalities.
iii

Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS V
INTRODUCTION 1
PROGRAMS TO ADDRESS GENDER INEQUALITY IN MEXICO 2
MEXICAN WOMEN AND SPORT 3
WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT THROUGH SPORT 3
SPORT FOR DEVELOPMENT AND PEACE 4
GROUNDING FRAMEWORK - SOCIAL CHANGE MODEL 6
PURPOSES 7
RESEARCH QUESTIONS 8
METHODS 8
POSITIONALITY 9
PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT AND DESCRIPTION 10
SETTING 10
SAMPLE AND RECRUITMENT 10
INSTRUMENT AND INTERVIEWS 11
DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES 11
DATA ANALYSIS 12
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 14
1) WHAT WERE THE EXPERIENCES OF A SUB-SAMPLE OF COACHES WHO TOOK PART IN THE
‘DEPORTE Y CAMBIO SOCIAL’ PROGRAM? 14
PROGRAM FORMAT 14
OUTCOMES OF THE PROGRAM 18
PROGRAM SUGGESTIONS 23
2) AS A RESULT OF PARTICIPATION IN THE PROGRAM, HOW DID PERCEPTIONS OF LEADERSHIP
CHANGE, IF AT ALL? 24
LEADERSHIP IS MULTIFACETED 24
3) AS A RESULT OF PARTICIPATION IN THE PROGRAM, HOW DID PERCEPTIONS OF GENDER (IN
RELATION TO THEIR ROLE AS SPORT EDUCATORS/COACHES) CHANGE, IF AT ALL? 31
GENDERED PERCEPTIONS OF LEADERSHIP IN MEXICO 31
CHANGE IN GENDERED PERCEPTIONS AFTER THE PROGRAM 37
4) HOW EFFECTIVE WAS THE SCM AS A MODEL TO GROUND THE ‘DEPORTE Y CAMBIO SOCIAL’
PROGRAM? 40
INDIVIDUAL VALUES 41
GROUP VALUES 44
SOCIETAL VALUES 47
PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS 49
LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS 51
REFERENCES 53
TABLES 69
TABLE 1 69
TABLE 2 70
TABLE 3 71
TABLE 4 72
iv

APPENDICES 74
APPENDIX A 74
EXTENDED LITERATURE REVIEW 74
GENDER INEQUALITY GLOBALLY 76
GENDER INEQUALITY IN MEXICO 80
MEXICAN WOMEN AND CULTURAL MODES OF EMPOWERMENT 82
MEXICAN WOMEN AND SPORT 85
WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT PROGRAMS IN MEXICO 87
WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT THROUGH SPORT 91
SPORT FOR DEVELOPMENT AND PEACE 93
SDP PROGRAM CONSIDERATIONS 98
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK - SOCIAL CHANGE MODEL 105
CURRENT PROGRAM 110
APPENDIX B 112
EXTENDED METHODS 112
SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST 112
POSITIONALITY 113
PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT 114
PROGRAM DESCRIPTION 115
SETTING 116
SAMPLE AND RECRUITMENT 116
INSTRUMENT 117
DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES 118
DATA ANALYSIS 119
TRUSTWORTHINESS 121
VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY 122
REFERENCES 124
APPENDIX C 140
FOCUS GROUPS PROTOCOL: 140
APPENDIX D 141
PROTOCOLO DE GRUPOS FOCALES 141


Acknowledgements
v
Dr. Watson: Thank you for giving me the opportunity to be here today. Thank you for your
unwavering support, limitless availability and incredible patience! I wouldn't be here without
you!
Dr. Luzynski: Cheyenne, In you I found not only an incredible committee member, but also a
woman who has characteristics that I hope I can acquire one day. The love, passion and
dedication that you gave not only to this project but also to me and my learning, are invaluable.
Thank you for your mentorship, your unconditional support, and your way of being. I am truly
grateful and honored to have had the opportunity to experience this adventure with you!!
Dr. Barnicle: I want to also thank you for giving me the opportunity to be here today, and for
choosing me as your first advisee! Thank you for always being there for me, you always made
me feel that I was important and that my voice was heard!
Dr.Zizzi: Your immense research knowledge and passion to share it, was what guided me
through some of the toughest parts of the mountain! Thank you for that and for showing me the
human side of academia, I’ll take that with me!
Dr. Milam: Sarah, in and out of Carruth, I always felt very supported by you. You are the best
definition of a supervisor. Thanks for helping me through some of my toughest moments (with
clients and in my personal life), I'll never forget how supported you made me feel.
Participants of ‘Deporte y Cambio Social’ program: This program was possible thanks to
you! Gracias por confiar en nosotros y por las buenas relaciones que creamos!
Adam and Andrea…. What an adventure… coding meeting after coding meeting, all sorts of
feelings were bounced around… however, the only one left in me is one of gratitude for both of
you. Thanks for teaching me how to enjoy the research process, I owe that to both of you!
To all my people in Morgantown, my SEPP family: Thank you!
Carra: my first source of support y alegria in Morgantown. So many memories, thanks for being
in this adventure with me. I couldn't have done it without you!
Matt: Wow… what a ride has been…It's almost done… (for me)! Haha. I could not have asked
for a better cohort mate! I love you deeply!
Spencer: I could have never asked for a better mentor! Spence you were there for me every step
of the way (i.e. triathlon training, 6am training sessions, research talk, running stats together/ for
me, road trips through the country roads, some amazing food…!) Can’t thank you enough!!
Karly: You are a golden one! Thank you for always being up to help, listen and smile, I value
you immensely.
Ali: We are now connected in a unique way! Thanks for letting me into your life!
My mentees: You two have marked my way... I will miss our family dinners!!
Tommy: So glad that our paths crossed, thanks for showing me your kindness, sensitivity and
huge heart!
Luna: Where to start… thank you for being a source of unconditional support and inspiration.
Bombastic!
Killeen: Buenas! Simply put, there is no one like you, my colleague!! Your sense of humor and
infinite kindness made my research (and non-research) days so much better!! Gracias!!
vi
Maja: Thank you for always being where I am, for the unquestionable visits (even to the
mountains!) and for the unwavering support! Thank you for always being by my side my friend,
I love you dearly!
Agus: Por fin!!! Estamos donde queremos carajo!! VAMOS!!!! Lo único que falta aquí son tus
hijos!! Gracias por tanto reina, te quiero tanto.
Abuelos: Siempre me costó estar tan lejos, lejos de sus pleitos y sabiduría que nos hacían llegar a
través de rimas, dichos, comida o chistes! Los extraño todos los días.
Chaik: Gracias por el humor Mexa que siempre me das, especialmente cuando más lo necesito.
Los videos, chistes y carcajadas por teléfono me ayudaron mucho mas de lo que te imaginas. Te
amo baby!
Gabo: Gracias por tanta serenidad, seguridad y apoyo incondicional. Gracias también por el
mejor regalo del mundo:
Lorenzo: gordo, gracias por tanta inspiración, tanto amor, tantas sonrisas y tantas lágrimas que
me sacas desde lejos! Gordo, por ti- siempre!
Papas… Escribí una tesis (en otro idioma) de 150 páginas, pero aun asi no puedo encontrar
palabras para darles gracias ni explicarles cuánto los amo!
Papá: ¡Gracias por enseñarme a dar todo de mí, siempre!, a tener una ética de trabajo bastante
alta y a nunca rendirme. Mamá: Gracias por enseñarme y recordarme continuamente que mi
valor como ser humano no depende de mis logros o fracasos, de victorias en tenis, títulos, becas,
calificaciones, ni diplomas. Sin lugar a duda, es el mejor regalo que he recibido. LOS AMO,
GRACIAS.
Zenzike: Tengo un doctorado!!!... tambien!!!
I could not have done this without you. Thank you, thank you, thank you...te amo con todo mi
corazón. ¡Gracias por caminar esta vida conmigo!
¡A VIVIR!
Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program
1
Introduction
Gender inequality is a significant global issue with women facing discrimination across
social, economic, political, and cultural dimensions of society. The term “gender” describes the
socially constructed responsibilities and roles that societies find adequate for men and women
(WHO, 2019). Gender equality refers to “men and women having equal power and equal
opportunities for financial independence, education, and personal development” (UNFPA, 2019,
para. 3). Because men tend to possess more power in society, one way to achieve gender equality
is through the development of strategies directed at women’s empowerment. Women’s
empowerment is the process by which women gain power over their lives (Hargreaves, 1995).
Some of the factors needed to achieve women’s empowerment are access to education, health,
resources, land and employment (Grown et al., 2005). Women’s empowerment can also occur by
creating strategies and programs that help women increase their leadership skills (Sperandio,
2011), self-esteem, confidence, autonomy and participation in society (Fiedrich et al., 2003).
The promotion of gender equality is seen as a worldwide objective. The UN Sustainable
Development goals for 2030 include goals specific to gender equality and women’s
empowerment (UNOSDP, 2020). Currently, gender equality does not exist in any country.
Mexico is ranked as the second lowest country in the world in labor force participation, and
income and wage disparities specific to women (Gender Gap Report, 2019). In addition,
harassment of women in Mexico and a culture of “machismo,” characterized by undesirable male
aggressive behavior, are prevalent and the amount and type of violence that women experience
are alarming (Englander et al., 2012; Revord, 2017). According to the United Nations (2018),
Mexico is among the most violent countries for women in the world. Despite the existence of
Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program
2
laws that protect women from these actions, there have not been many improvements; in fact,
Mexican cultural norms play a primordial role in violence against women.
Mexican culture maintains that women are subservient to men (Anzaldúa, 1999), women
are expected to be uneducated, not smart, not outspoken and not independent (Navarro, 2014).
Early in their lives, men are taught that they should be decision makers, economic providers and
they shouldn’t show emotions (Pick et al., 2006). Mexican culture professes to protect women by
keeping them in rigid and defined roles and condemning them if they do not adhere to these roles
(Ortega, 2015). Even though many women have stood up to these injustices, and legal reforms
exist, societal norms continue to promote a high tolerance for violence against women and accept
that men have power over women (Pick et al., 2006).
Programs to Address Gender Inequality in Mexico
To address the challenges facing women, the Mexican government has allocated $10
million to the Instituto Nacional de las Mujeres (Women’s National Institute) to be distributed
among more than 100 initiatives and programs that promote gender equality and women’s
empowerment (INMUJERES, 2020). These programs and initiatives focus on violence against
women, women’s safety, economic and financial equality, health, and the creation of legislation
that protects women. Even with government funding, limited information exists about what these
programs entail, and no published evidence exists to show that they are serving most Mexican
women or achieving their goals. Further, this funding works out to only $100k per organization,
which is likely not enough money to thoroughly support substantial programming.
Other organizations and institutions have created programs aiming to empower girls and
women in Mexico by promoting education, skill building, and/or the use of sports. ‘Promoting
Women’s Economic Empowerment in Mexico’ (Mohiuddin, 2016), ‘Empowering the future
Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program
3
generation of Mexican Female leaders’ (Vargas, 2018), ‘She Wins Mexico’ (Vales, 2015) and
‘Fut sin Genero’(Kuri, 2019) are examples of initiatives that have the goal of supporting the
empowerment of Mexican women and helping close the gender gap. Even though these
programs report successes, none have a theoretical foundation nor an objective program
evaluation. These programs have also been criticized for being scarce and lacking engagement.
Mexican Women and Sport
For women in Mexico, formal exercise has not been a long held cultural norm. Until
recently it was believed that exercise should occur while women clean, take care of the children,
and cook (Delgado, 1999). Societal norms suggested that sport and physical activity were not
conducive for the development of young women. Therefore, it was not seen as attractive or
acceptable for women to participate in sports (Ordorica, 2005); and those who did were faced
with prejudice and discrimination (Aybar, 2008). Once people realized that sport and physical
activity are important for the psychological, physical, and social development of children, in
1988 the Mexican government required physical education to be included in school curricula
(Secretaría de Educación Pública, 2013). After this transition, women were encouraged to
participate in women-only sports that focused on cooperation rather than competition and
aggression (Roth & Basow, 2004). This situation has slowly shifted, giving way to some changes
in the social structure of sports for women (Villanueva & Luevano, 2016). Currently, gender
equality is required in all programs organized by the Mexican’s National Commission for
Physical Culture and Sport (CONADE), and these programs are expected to benefit Mexican
boys and men, girls and women equally (Villanueva & Luevano, 2016).
Women’s Empowerment through Sport
Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program
4
Sport participation has been empirically supported as an engaging and inclusive means to
initiate change (Beutler, 2008). Researchers support the idea that participation in sport and
physical activity has positive benefits for girls and women. Apart from the general physical
benefits, sport can also help to increase participants’ leadership skills, independence and the
value of working within rules and structure (Pick et al., 2006). Sport participation and physical
activity can help young women have a lower risk of teen pregnancy and greater control over their
fertility (Miller et al., 1998); it can help increase women’s self-esteem and confidence and may
be an appropriate context for promoting women’s development and empowerment (Saavedra,
2009). Sport can also be used to empower women and girls and liberate them from hegemonic
feminine ideals (Saavedra, 2005). It is also argued that through participation in sports women can
learn leadership skills and develop social networks that can impact other areas of their lives
(Lumpkin, 2012). Although many benefits are associated with participation in sports, it may also
be important to consider additional factors when developing sport programs specific to women
and girls. For instance, it is important to keep in mind the prejudice and misconceptions related
to women in sports, religion, women’s safety, eating disorders, and other issues surrounding
gender and sexual norms (Pick et al., 2006; Saavedra, 2005). Doing so will help make programs
culturally appropriate, relevant, viable in communities, and sensitive to the identities of the
women involved.
Sport for Development and Peace
Sport for Development and Peace (SDP) programs aim to achieve specific development
and peace goals, which are often associated with the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
The eight MDGs are: “1) Eradicating extreme poverty and hunger, 2) Achieving universal
primary education, 3) Promoting gender equality and empowering women, 4) Reducing child
Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program
5
mortality, 5) Improving maternal health, 6) Combating HIV and AIDS, malaria, and other
diseases, 7) Ensuring environmental sustainability and 8) Developing a global partnership for
development” (WHO, MDG, 2015, p.1). As evidenced by the MDG’s, the overall goal of SDP
programs is to facilitate both individual and societal change by designing sport-based programs
where participants can transfer the knowledge and skills gained from programming into their
societies (Kaufman & Wolff, 2010). These programs often seek to attain these goals by
combining sport with other non-sport activities in a holistic manner (Kidd, 2008) and have been
used to support a range of outcomes, including prevention of crime, improved education and
youth development, and promotion of gender equality (Hartmann & Kwauk, 2011). Although
gender is not a theme that is well represented in the SDP literature (Schulenkorf et al., 2016),
researchers suggest that when women are the focus of development programming, they are able
to bring financial, social, and cultural shifts and improvements to their families and community
(Brady, 2005; Pelak, 2005).
Even though researchers have shown that SDP interventions can have positive outcomes
(Hayden et al., 2012), these effects do not happen automatically, intentionally designed programs
are needed (Cárdenas, 2013). To enhance the success of SDP programs, it is suggested that they
include the following: creation of environments conducive to change, inclusion of participants
during all stages, adoption of individual and systems approaches to change, cultural
considerations, implementation of systematic evaluation, and a theoretical foundation (Dixon et
al., 2019). When conducting an SDP program, it is important that cultural differences are
acknowledged and respected. It is also important to consider the ethnicity, gender, age,
socioeconomic status and background of the participants as well as of the people implementing
the program. To address this issue, SDP programs have used a train-the-trainer approach
Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program
6
(Sugden, 2006) that enhances the reach and effectiveness of the program by training coaches to
implement SDP programs. Research suggests that with training, coaches can more effectively
create positive sport environments and have more meaningful interactions with their athletes,
which supports their psychosocial development and expands the reach of the program (Conroy &
Coatsworth, 2006).
Additionally, researchers suggest that SDP programs should be grounded in theory
(Dixon et al, 2019). This consideration is two-fold: 1) to explain how and why behavioral change
will occur; and 2) to combine theory and practical sessions as a more powerful learning strategy
(Lyras & Peachey, 2011). Even though several theories often inform SDP programs (e.g.,
Positive Youth Development, Social Capital, etc.), there is no consensus on a comprehensive
theory or model that should be used (Whitley et al., 2019). Therefore, there is a need to explore
the merits of different grounding frameworks as the foundation for SDP programs.
Grounding Framework - Social Change Model
The Social Change Model (SCM) of Leadership Development (Higher Education
Research Institute, HERI, 1996) is a model that focuses on the development of leadership at the
individual and societal levels. In this model, leadership is viewed as “a purposeful, collaborative,
values-based process that results in a positive social change” (Komives & Wagner, 2016, p.wii).
This model is values-based and inclusive of all people since it is assumed that community
engagement helps to create change (Dugan & Komives, 2007). The SCM is divided into three
major value areas: individual, group, and societal values. These three value areas include other
values, namely congruence, consciousness of self, and commitment (individual); controversy
with civility, collaboration and common purpose (group); and citizenship (societal). These seven
values interact with each other to create the eighth value: change. Change is the ultimate goal
Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program
7
and therefore gives meaning and purpose to the other values (Komives & Wagner, 2016). The
SCM has been used by researchers and practitioners interested in leadership development in
diverse settings (Komives & Wagner, 2016).
Although the SCM has never been used as the grounding model for SDP programs, it
may be particularly appropriate because it addresses several of the key considerations for
effective SDP programs. SDP programs emphasize the value of a systems approach (vs. solely an
individual approach) to support sustainable social change. The SCM addresses leadership and
change at the individual, group, and societal level through the application of seven values that
span these three levels. Another consideration for effective SDP programs is creating an
environment that is conducive to change. The SCM is a universal values-based model, which
emphasizes creating positive environments where equality, social justice, and service are
constantly present. This environment consequently supports change. Additionally, it is important
for SDP programs to include participants during all stages of the program and to be aware of
cultural considerations. One of the SCM’s core ideas is that change, and leadership are
collaborative processes and therefore everyone is encouraged to take part in these processes.
Finally, to provide evidence for efficacy and a mechanism of change, SDP programs should
employ systematic evaluations. The SRLS is an instrument that was developed to quantitatively
measure the different values of the SCM and allows participants to be involved in the evaluation
process. It appears that the SCM may be an effective framework for grounding SDP programs.
Purposes
The purposes of this project are multidimensional. The first two purposes are to: (a)
understand the experiences of a sub-sample of participants in the “Deporte y Cambio Social”
program, and their perceptions of gender, gender in leadership, and the application of sport in
Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program
8
creating social change; and (b) explore the utility of using the SCM as a grounding model for
SDP programs focused on issues of gender and leadership. The third purpose is to facilitate my
goal of becoming a more effective scholar and practitioner since my career goal is to continue
working with people and sports in this manner. The last purpose is to better understand my own
experience of how sport has empowered me to be a Mexican woman, and a scholar-practitioner
in the United States.
Research Questions
Based on the purposes of this dissertation, the current study addresses the following
research questions:
1) What were the experiences of a sub-sample of coaches who took part in the ‘Deporte y
Cambio Social’ program?
2) As a result of participation in the program, how did perceptions of leadership change, if at all?
3) As a result of participation in the program, how did perceptions of gender (in relation to their
role as sport educators/coaches) change, if at all?
4) How effective was the SCM as a model to ground the ‘Deporte y Cambio Social’ program?
Methods
In this study, I utilized a qualitative methodology consisting of focus group interviews
with the purpose of examining the experiences of a sub-sample of coaches who took part in the
‘Deporte y Cambio Social’ program. My philosophical perspective has informed the social
constructivist approach taken to address the research questions in this study (Harper, 2011).
Ontologically, I maintain the relativist perspective that there is not only one reality, but that all
individuals create their own unique reality based on their perceptions and meanings of
experiences (Sale et al., 2002). Using a social constructivist overarching framework with a
Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program
9
relativist ontological perspective, also aligns with this program’s structure and purpose, since it
was developed with the intention of promoting social change through sport participation and the
interaction between participants through workshops and practical activities. Consistent with this
epistemological approach, the methodology of this dissertation sought to give voice to the
participants, and thereby understand the meaning they gave to their interactions and experiences.
For a more comprehensive overview of the methods, an extended methods section can be found
in appendix B.
Positionality
The organizing group for this program consisted of four Americans (all of whom were
born and raised in the USA), one Chilean (born and raised in Chile; a naturalized United States
citizen, fluent in Spanish and English), and me. I am the first author of this paper and I am a
Mexican woman who was born and raised in Mexico City, Mexico. I have personal experience
with gender inequality in Mexico, and I have lived where conscious and unconscious
discrimination towards women is a constant. I have always been interested in helping women
gain their own voice and based on my own experiences, I believe that sport participation is a
great means for accomplishing that. I believe that I am who I am in part because of my
experiences in sport. My upbringing and life experiences had an impact on this research process,
program development, methodology, implementation, and data analysis. This was beneficial
because: 1) I am well informed about the situation of women in Mexico; 2) I believe that because
of my past experiences and my fluency in Spanish, I was able to connect with the Mexican
participants easily; 3) I may not have been perceived as an outsider, which may have allowed me
to get more accurate information from participants; and 4) Given my experiences, I was able to
use my positionality to explore the purposes of this research project.
Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program
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I am also aware that my past may also confound this research since, unknowingly: 1) I
likely projected my personal experiences and views onto the participants’ answers; and 2)
response bias (Huberman et al., 2014) may have occurred if participants felt compelled to
respond in ways they thought I wanted to hear. Hence, it was important to include multiple
researchers, with different nationalities, genders, and backgrounds, to help decrease the influence
of bias and highlight blind spots when conducting the program and analyzing results.
Program Development and Description
The “Deporte y Cambio Social” was an eight-day soccer-based program that used the
SCM as a grounding framework and aimed to initiate social change through the empowerment
and development of leadership skills among young women in Mexico. This program was
designed to use a train-the-trainer model (Blom et al., 2015; Conroy & Coatsworth, 2006) with
the goal of promoting sustainability and expanding the reach of the program. The current study is
part of a larger research project, and portions of the overall data have previously been submitted
for publication (Hansell et al., 2020). This portion of the project focuses on understanding the
experiences and the learning outcomes of a sub-sample of participants in this program and also
aims to provide qualitative evidence assessing the potential utility of the SCM as a grounding
model of an SDP program that supports women’s empowerment.
Setting
The program took place at a large public university in Nuevo Leon, Monterrey, Mexico.
The Sports Organization Department at that institution shared their classrooms and sport
facilities so the organizing group and the professional participants could implement the program.
Sample and Recruitment
Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program
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Program participants consisted of college undergraduate and graduate students and local
coaches who were, or had intentions of, working with women athletes. Seventy-four Mexican
participants (28 men and 46 women) aged 18-57 years old (M = 23) participated in the program.
For the current study, a sub-group of 24 participants were randomly selected and asked via email
to participate in a focus group interview. A total of 18 (13 responded affirmatively to the email,
and five recruited through convenient sampling) individuals took part in the focus group
interviews. Participants (8 men and 10 women) ranged in age from 18-29 years old.
Instrument and Interviews
A semi-structured interview guide was created and used to address the participants’
experiences in the program, their learning outcomes, and if/how the program helped them change
their perspectives about leadership, gender, and/or empowerment. Sample items included:
‘Describe your experience of participating in this program’ and ‘Did this program change your
perceptions of leadership? If so, how?’.
Focus group interviews were used to examine the participants’ experiences in this
program. We chose this method of data collection because: 1) the data generated through the
social interactions of group members, are often richer and deeper than those obtained through
one-on-one interviews (Thomas et al., 1995), 2) data can provide information about a range of
ideas and feelings about certain issues, as well as illustrate the differences in perspective between
individuals (Rabiee, 2004), and 3) this method of data collection maximizes efficiency while also
reducing the participant’s load (Jackson, 1998).
Data Collection Procedures
Study approval was obtained from an Institutional Review Board prior to the beginning
of program activities. At the end of the program, focus groups were conducted by two
Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program
12
researchers who are fluent in Spanish and English (Mexican woman and American man). Before
any of the interviews started, the researchers told the participants that they were free to express
themselves, regardless of the tone and tenor of their comments towards the program, the other
gender, or other cultures. Participants were also reminded that their participation was voluntary,
and they could stop at any point. All participants gave their verbal consent to continue and to
record the sessions. The three focus group interviews were conducted in Spanish and lasted
between 43-63 minutes. Focus groups were both video and voice recorded, and notes were taken
during (or immediately after) the interviews.
Data Analysis
In line with a social constructivist epistemological framework, a reflexive thematic
analysis was used to analyze the data following Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six phases approach
(i.e., familiarizing, coding, theme development, refinement, naming and writing up). All
interviews and notes were transcribed verbatim and translated from Spanish to English by a
professional translator and reviewed by a Mexican woman to ensure the quality of the
transcripts.
A research team was developed and consisted of the primary researcher, a secondary
researcher (American man who took part in the development and implementation of the
program) and a critical friend (American woman, who was not part of the program), all of whom
were involved in the data analysis to provide honest and impartial feedback. All members of the
research team conducted bracketing interviews prior to starting data analysis with the purpose of
acknowledging our backgrounds and values before starting the coding process. Data analysis was
mostly based on an inductive (data-driven) approach; however, a deductive (theory-driven)
approach (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005) was used to answer the fourth research question.
Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program
13
Following Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six phases for reflexive thematic analysis, we read
the transcripts several times to become acquainted with the information before coding. We began
with open coding (inductive approach). These codes were generated independently. To ensure
trustworthiness, each of us kept analytic memos with our ideas and thoughts about the codes, the
relationship between the codes and/or any questions (Glaser, 1978). We met once or twice per
week to discuss the codes that we had generated on our own and engaged in conversations that
explained the reasons these codes were chosen. Transcripts were coded until consensus was
achieved (Saldaña, 2013). Once done coding the transcripts, we looked for relationships between
codes and put them together into bigger categories (i.e., themes and subthemes). We jointly
created three thematic maps (one for each of the first three research questions), and once agreed
upon, we moved onto refinement. Each of us re-read the transcripts and verified that all data was
represented by the themes and subthemes (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Finally, the themes were
defined and named in a way that was clear for readers. The extracts that provided a vivid and
compelling example of the themes were selected for the report.
Once the three thematic maps were completed, we analyzed the codes using a deductive
approach. This process explored the similarities between the themes and subthemes from the
inductive analysis and the main values of the SCM (HERI, 1996). HERI’s (1996) operational
definition of each of the seven values of the SCM were utilized to clarify what each of the values
look like in practice and behaviors. The way we individually categorized the themes and
subthemes in relation to the SCM was: 1) the theme/subtheme that fit within one of the seven
values of the SCM, and under which value, and 2) the themes/subthemes that are not related to
the SCM. We went through this process individually and then came together as a group to
generate consensus. This thematic map informed the fourth research question.
Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program
14
Results and Discussion
This results and discussion section presents and discusses the findings of the current
study related to participants’ perceptions and experiences in the ‘Deporte y Cambio Social’
program, specific to gender, leadership, and sport. This section is divided into four main sections
that encompass each of the four research questions: 1) What were the experiences of a sub
sample of coaches who took part in the ‘Deporte y Cambio Social’ program?, 2) As a result of
participation in the program, how did perception of leadership change, if at all?, 3) As a result of
participation in the program, how did perceptions of gender (in relation to their role as sport
educators/coaches) change, if at all?, and 4) How effective was the SCM as a model to ground
the ‘Deporte y Cambio Social’ program? Overall, the combined inductive and deductive
reflexive thematic analysis yielded 683 raw meaning units, which were synthesized into nine
higher order themes.
1) What were the experiences of a sub-sample of coaches who took part in the ‘Deporte y
Cambio Social’ program?
In reference to research question one, raw meaning units were organized into three higher
order themes (program format, outcomes of the program, and program suggestions), 10 middle
order themes (i.e., expectations, methodology, utility of material, empowerment, relationships,
values, social change takes time, follow up, time, and participants) and 33 lower order themes
(see Table 1 for thematic map 1).
Program format
Program format refers to the participants’ statements regarding the structure, content and
methodology of the program. Participants shared their expectations for the program, their
Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program
15
opinions about the methodology (including the structure and the way in which the US leadership
was involved), and the utility of the material learned.
Expectations. Several participants had negative expectations for this program: “No, this
is going to be something heavy, something tedious, three days memorizing tasks…” Which
aligned with previous literature stating that women’s empowerment programs in Mexico do not
have a very good reputation; they have been criticized for being impractical, monotonous and
lacking engagement (Ochman, 2016). Once participants realized that soccer was the vehicle
chosen to spark interest in initiating change, their feelings were polarized, some were averse to
it: “I think they all said, what? soccer? a lot of people didn't want to do it because of that”, and
others were looking forward to it, given their attraction to the sport: “soccer is a global sport, and
it is my favorite sport.” These findings underscore the importance of sport selection (e.g.,
familiar sport vs new sport) when developing a sport-based program to create balance between
pushing participants out of their comfort zone (e.g., growth) and building their confidence (e.g.,
through competence; Bean et al., 2014; Whitely et al., 2016).
Methodology. Participants’ preference for and perceived benefits of an active learning
methodology was evident: “...the interweave, theory-practice, kept what we had worked on fresh
on us, so it was easier to apply it to practice. Pure theory bores you, you don't understand
anything, and then you go to practice and you say, ‘and now what?’.” To keep high levels of
engagement in this program, theory and practice sessions were interwoven and participants
expressed their affinity for this approach. Throughout the program, several learning strategies
were utilized (e.g.: self-reflection, discussion, presentations, and experiential learning) to deliver
the content. Participants mentioned that these activities were engaging: “... from the beginning it
caught my attention, since they talked about what the activities were going to be, these were very
Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program
16
neat, I liked them a lot.” Participants’ statements further confirmed the importance of having
activities that keep participants engaged, active and entertained throughout the program.
These results further support the fact that the methodology, structure and content of
programming are essential to promote participants’ development (Holt, et al., 2012). More
specifically, enjoyment and engagement are cited as primary contributing factors for initiation
and maintenance of sport participation and essential when targeting vulnerable populations
(Whitley & Gould, 2010). Further, when training coaches, it is important to diversify the
learning/teaching modalities used, given that coaches often prefer educational approaches that
utilize different learning experiences that have a strong focus on both pedagogical and practical
knowledge (Mesquita et al., 2014).
Participants also noted several aspects that they appreciated from the structure of the
program such as the way their points of view and different perspectives were welcomed: “... you
gave us the guidance and let us do and undo, you never imposed anything, you explained what to
do and we were there, you let us express ourselves and you learned, and we also learned”; and
the way in which the US leadership was involved:
“I really valued that the teacher and the one who is also a director, and the one who is
going to be a director, they all enjoyed doing those games with us, and playing, and
jumping, and yes we have to run, or jump, that is, that teaches and that kind of value”
The type of leadership behavior that participants valued in the US leaders aligned with previous
research stating that Mexicans prefer leaders who can be relatable (Raffaelli & Ontai, 2004)
since they place importance on building relationships and collaboration with each other (Dugan,
et al., 2011).
Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program
17
Additionally, participants’ appreciation for the collaborative approach to
teaching/learning, supported one of the key SCM concepts: to avoid the imposition of one’s
views or position on another (HERI, 1996). Further, taking an approach that promotes the
continued involvement of participants can increase the likelihood of accountability and therefore
the possible sustainability of outcomes through collaboration (Whitley, et al., 2014).
Utility of material. Participants in the current program, ranging from practicing adults to
college age students aspiring to teach and coach, valued the utility of the material learned. They
stated that many of the topics covered in the program transcended sport: “I think the course has a
lot of important things that we can apply at any time, they are all necessary, values, teamwork,
coexistence, everything is important to apply in our life”; and were applicable to their jobs in the
future: “...everything we talked in these workshops is useful for us when we finish [school] and
start working.” These statements demonstrate that participants in this program have thought
about where and how they can apply the material learned during this program, after it is over.
Even though this seems like a positive outcome, one of the common criticisms of SDP
programs is the deficiency of transferability of skills from the field and during the program to
other areas of the participants’ lives (Dixon et al., 2019). In sport-based life skills development
for youth, research indicates that transfer is more likely to happen if youth find the program
content meaningful and useful for real-world situations and if they are motivated to use the skills
in alternative contexts (Jacobs & Wright, 2018).
It is also important to question the sustainability of the knowledge and skills gained
during the program. Without additional programming, knowledge and skills may mitigate over
time due to the influence of cultural norms (Cohen, et al., 2020). Furthermore, it is important to
keep in mind that participants may be faced with opposition once they try to implement their
Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program
18
newly acquired skills and knowledge in their day to day lives, especially if they do not feel safe
adopting behaviors that go against their cultural norms (Jacobs & Wright, 2018). This shines
light on the importance of further involvement and communication with (and between)
participants, following the completion of the program, to identify and help overcome potential
barriers.
Outcomes of the program
Outcomes of the program refers to the participants’ opinions of the experiences and
takeaways of the program. Participants shared that throughout the program they were able to feel
empowered, gain knowledge and skills, form different relationships, learn about the importance
of several values, and recognize the role of sport and coaches in social change.
Empowerment. Participants in the current program expressed feelings of empowerment
and increased self-confidence. One participant stated that: “this program revived me and brought
me back into the world and I quite liked it”, another participant said: “a lot was revived in me
and now all those fears, all those insecurities are gone, and I feel like I'm secure, and I can still
accomplish many more things.” Other participants focused on their self-confidence and their
relation to others: “I think it gave us the courage to value ourselves and always keep in mind that
you can do whatever you want obviously without harming anyone else…”, and another
participant shared: “I think I reflected and realized, and the truth is that we can change the world
more if we want it, and that Mexico and everyone can change the negative to positive.” Another
participant shared the way she felt after the program and how she sees herself moving forward:
“...in this week I have changed a lot, it has given me more confidence to talk to people,
more ease to be able to develop my ideas and that within my sport you want to show your
Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program
19
companions everything that you can be able to do yourself, or with them, in order to
achieve the objectives.”
Participants’ increases in self-esteem, self-confidence and feelings of empowerment were
displayed, further supporting previous sport-based programs’ literature which have reported that
after the conclusion of the program, women participants showed an increase in self-esteem, self
confidence, and participation in society (Pedersen & Siedman, 2004; Saavedra, 2009). Given that
Mexico is founded in a patriarchal culture in which women tend to be subdued to men (Ortega,
2015), the fact that women participants felt empowered, with an increased self-esteem and with
motivation to initiate change is very positive not only for themselves but also for their athletes.
Coaches and PE teachers are role models for children (Coalter, 2010). Therefore, if participants
felt that the program was truly a ‘transformational experience’, which helped them change their
perceptions of their own agency and empowerment (Jacobs & Wright, 2018) and helped them
become leaders (Turnnridge & Côté, 2018), then they may be more likely to use what they have
learned while coaching younger generations.
Relationships. Participants in this program mentioned that they were able to create new
relationships with people from the US: “you didn’t spend time saying, ‘we are the group from
the US’, but you were very strategic, and you involved all of us, having new relationships”, and
with Mexican participants: “I met people, I would have never come close to, or talk to.”
Demonstrating that interacting with Mexican peers and US participants throughout the program
allowed them to create new relationships. In Mexico, creating relationships and personal
connections is of extreme importance (Jonsson & Snealand, 2018), therefore this is an outcome
that strongly aligns with the Mexican cultural values. Furthermore, participants also realized the
importance of creating relationships with their own athletes:
Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program
20
“...ask them at least, how are you? how about your day? how did you wake up today?
maybe these are simple questions, but you never know how the person really is, you
never know if the way he or she woke up is going to benefit or harm the team...”
Participants’ reflections on how little things can make a big difference, and the impact that the
relationship with their athletes can have on their individual and team performance was beneficial
given that the coach-athlete relationship is fundamental for the process of creating a positive
experience where personal development can occur (Holt, et al., 2017). Previous SDP program
research states that after participating in SDP programs, participants showed an improvement in
their interactions with others, in their capacities to create new relationships (Cárdenas, 2012),
and an increased sense of belonging and positive communication with others (Hayden et al.,
2012) which was further supported by participants in this program.
Values. Participants also reported program learning outcomes such as the importance of
values. Some of the values they mentioned included: integrity, respect, kindness, empathy,
communication, teamwork, tolerance, commitment, open mindedness, coexistence,
collaboration, service to others, common purpose, and adaptability. These findings are promising
as social values contribute to and greatly influence the rate and direction of social change
(Burnes & Jackson, 2011). Values influence behavior, and there is a positive relationship
between value alignment, followers’ commitment and goal achievement (Cohen & Keren, 2008).
Moreover, followers who see that a proposed change intervention is congruent with their own
values are more likely to show commitment and enthusiasm (Neves & Caetano, 2009).
Since participants were (or training to be) coaches and PE teachers, they talked about the
role values play in sport: “Well I think values, we sometimes overlook them, and we assume that
they already know it or that they have been taught in schools, I think you must always instill
Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program
21
them”; and recognized that values can influence the athletes’ performance: “... and that values
influence the performance of your player within the game.” The fact that participants recognized
the role and utility of values within their sport and with their athletes may increase the likelihood
of values implementation during coaching/teaching sessions (Delgado & Gómez, 2011). Further,
considering that several participants work with young children (whose set of beliefs are not fully
formed; Ortega, 2015), implementing values into their coaching would increase the likelihood of
those children internalizing them and creating a change in their society.
The Role of Sport and Coaches in Social Change. Many of the experiences that
participants went through, allowed them to reflect on the fact that social change is a process that
does not happen automatically. For changes to be impactful and sustainable, the issue must be
addressed at the individual and community levels (Hartmann & Kwauk, 2011). Participants were
able to not only think about their individual responsibilities but also about the things that they
can do to initiate social change within their communities.
Participants recognized sport as a versatile tool to enhance social change. They talked
about how their experiences going through this program allowed them to have a better idea of
how sports can be used for developing greater good:
“Well, I hadn't thought about how to help the community before, then in a way I became
aware of how they involve young people in sport and take them away from all the
problems that they may have, and in low income areas that are dangerous.”
These findings are important because given their profession/education, participants spend a lot of
time coaching or teaching physical education to children/young adults. Further, since sport has
been empirically supported as an engaging and inclusive means to initiate change (Beutler,
Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program
22
2008), this seems like a great avenue for participants to continue to do their job while
consciously working to make their community a better place.
Apart from the general physical benefits, sport participation can also help increase
participants’ independence, self-esteem, confidence, and feelings of empowerment (Pick et al.,
2006). Participants in this program echoed these findings by reflecting on the power of sport in
their own lives: “... sports are something that saves me a lot, and that keeps me cheerful, alert
and with encouragement”, and as a teaching technique: “the sport itself teaches us the value of
justice, the value of loyalty, of companionship, it is the pure essence of sport.”
Sport experiences and outcomes may vary from person to person. Coaches are known as
the gatekeepers of these experiences since they are in-charge of creating the sport environment
for their athletes (Conroy & Coatsworth, 2006). Participants in this program also acknowledged
that coaches and PE teachers are powerful role models in the community: “as a coach you have a
lot of power over children, and you can lead them into a good path and develop them that way”,
and that they can impact the athletes’ thinking processes and mindsets:
“The role of the coach and the physical education educator is very important, because it
influences the development of youth, we don't see it, but now we can change things for
young people, their way of thinking, instill in them these values, change that mentality.”
Participants demonstrated awareness of their influence on their athletes by talking about the
importance of modeling behaviors for them: “we don’t only have to say it, but we have to do it,
being consistent with what we say and what we do, in training as well as in our life.” Other
participants also acknowledged their professional responsibility to teach values to their athletes:
“...to be able to teach [values] and the responsibility we have as professionals, as future
Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program
23
professionals is high.” Participants’ awareness of their roles and responsibilities as coaches and
educators was evidenced.
Awareness is an essential part of initiating change (Higgs & Rowland, 2010), therefore
participants’ acknowledgements of their power and responsibilities to their athletes (especially
the younger ones) is a good first step. Further, the fact that participants realized that for social
change to happen, they would all have to take individual responsibility and use their power as
coaches and PE teachers to influence younger generations, are positive signs that the train-the
trainer approach could be efficient if participants remember the skills and knowledge gained in
this program after it is over and apply it at their jobs (Pearce et al., 2012). In the future, the
authors aim to assess for participants’ sustainability and transferability of skills learned in this
program.
Program suggestions
Program suggestions refers to the participants’ opinions about aspects of the program that
could be modified and improved. The first suggestion was to increase the number of participants
and to target those participants who have a desire to implement the skills: “To increase the
number of participants and choose the people who want to take it, because some were not
interested, they did not appreciate the work.” This suggestion shines light on the importance of
recruitment strategies, including selection and number of participants. Participants in the current
program were recruited through different means (e.g., personal invitations from the college
director, individual sign up if interested in the program, and some were instructed to attend by
their professors). Participants who were not interested in the program, might have been the ones
who were instructed to attend rather than the ones who voluntarily signed up. Personalizing
Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program
24
offerings, and actively finding and recruiting people who want to be part of the program is the
first step for a successful SDP program implementation (Lawson, 2005).
SDP programs for youth have varied in length, with some lasting as little as 12 days and
others lasting as long as five years (Baker et al., 2015). The current program lasted only eight
days, and participants stated that they would have liked the program to last longer: “Just that
sadly you give us only a week, and if the program gave us two weeks or even three weeks it
would be better.” Some shared that more time would have been beneficial to be able to practice
and develop their skills: “because with the week we had we did learn something, but if that week
had been a more extensive course, we would have taken it into practice, to see if it worked or
not, to see if we have more skills as leaders.” Participants’ desire for a longer implementation
period was also evidenced by the last suggestion to include follow up contact:
“To do a follow up... so that you go somewhere else and then we create something and
tell you, hey you know what, with what you taught us we are doing this.”
After programs have concluded, follow up interventions and future evaluations are recommended
to increase the likelihood of sustainability of impact (Blom et al, 2015).
2) As a result of participation in the program, how did perceptions of leadership change, if
at all?
When analyzing research question two, all data was encompassed by one higher order
theme (leadership is multifaceted), six middle order themes (i.e., reaffirming and broadening
definition, leadership qualities, leadership is a process, leadership style, sport for leadership
development and means of empowerment) and 20 lower order themes (see Table 2 for thematic
map 2).
Leadership is multifaceted
Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program
25
The perception that leadership is multifaceted was the overarching theme for participant’s
changed perceptions about leadership. Overall, participants’ perceptions of leadership changed to
understand that leadership is not unidimensional. In fact, it encompasses many different factors
including definitions, values, relationships, bonds, trust, followers, and it can be demonstrated,
developed and utilized in different contexts and for different reasons.
Reaffirming and broadening definition. When participants were asked about their
views of leadership, some stated that their perceptions of leadership changed: “My perception
did change, there are many more traits, many more things that a person who is a leader has”, and
others shared that: “I do not know if it changed, but at least it complemented the idea I had of a
leader, which involves serving and how we have effective leadership.” Expanding participants’
leadership definitions is a step towards initiating change given that rigid definitions of leadership
and cultural tightness have maintained the status quo of having men (and not women) in
leadership and powerful positions (Toh & Leonardelli, 2012).
Leadership qualities. Having a shared vision, having charisma, being a good
communicator, being honest, inspirational, trustworthy, and just are considered universal
qualities of leaders (Dorfman et al., 2012). Mexican participants identified several similar
qualities that good leaders possess, such as the ability to work collaboratively with others and
being adaptable to others and their ideas. They also mentioned the importance of a leader being
holistic, self-confident, having a clear vision: “be[ing] very clear about the objectives'', and being
able to manage people by making them feel equal: “... that is at the same level as his
collaborators, not above them, so that they can relate to him.” These quotes demonstrate
similarity between universal leadership qualities and those valued by participants.
Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program
26
In Mexico, there is a strong emphasis on respect in hierarchies and social relationships
(Raffaelli & Ontai, 2004) that was noted by participants who talked about the relationship
between leadership and respect: “... to respect, whether it be the players, our families and
everyone, and I believe that within a leader there must be respect.” Participants also talked about
the importance of integrity, encouragement and empathy to be a successful leader: “…[leaders]
have to have a good empathy, relationship, integrity, and vision, to reach the objectives without
any problem.” These findings align with the Mexican culture given that treating people with
respect, being empathetic, and developing trust are dominant guidelines for interpersonal
relationships and leadership status (Howell et al., 2007).
Even though participants were able to identify and mention several different qualities that
good leaders possess, none talked about self-awareness and shared responsibility. These are often
considered essential components to effective leadership (Dugan & Komives, 2007; Kezar et al,
2008), and could point to a missing component of program design.
Leadership is a process. Participants in this program recognized that leadership is a
process that requires constant learning: “A leader must be in constant change, in constant
learning, and constant growth as a person.” Participants also stated that effective leadership does
not only depend on one person, and there is a big role played by the leader’s followers:
“The first follower is important, the followers you have, then you make an impact on
them, you can get the idea that you're going to be relaxed and that they're going to follow
you at that moment, because that's what's important, how you impact people, for me it's
the fundamental thing.”
Participants further recognized that leadership is a process where the leader needs to create trust
and build relationships with his/her followers:
Deporte y Cambio Social: Women’s empowerment SDP program
27
“Yes, you have to know how to listen and talk to them, make them part of the family,
soccer is a family, it is a way in which many people integrate and as I tell you, get
acquainted with the players. At least: how are you? Some problems that I can help you
with? This is a way in which they integrate into the group of players-coach and I integrate
them as part of the team.”
These findings share common elements with three of the four transformational leadership
dimensions: influencing followers through role modeling and relationships grounded in respect
(i.e., idealized influence), through the use of unity and a clear vision (i.e., inspirational
motivation), and by demonstrating care and viewing each follower as an individual with their
own needs (i.e., individualized consideration) (Turnnidge & Côté, 2018).
In Mexican leadership culture, there is a similar emphasis on trusting relationships. In
Mexico, more than reciprocal relationships between the leader and the followers (Northouse,
2010), personal connections and trust are heavily emphasized for the creation of effective
leadership (Jonsson & Snealand, 2018). In Mex