upporting The Injured Athlete: Coaches’ Perspectives On Providing Social Support : upporting The Injured Athlete: Coaches’ Perspectives On
Providing Social Support
Supporting The Injured Athlete: Coaches’ Perspectives On
Providing Social Support
Stefanee Opal Maurice
West Virginia University, stmaurice@mail.wvu.edu
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Recommended Citation
Maurice, Stefanee Opal, "Supporting The Injured Athlete: Coaches’ Perspectives On Providing Social
Support" (2019). Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports. 4017.
https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd/4017
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Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports
2019
SUPPORTING THE INJURED ATHLETE:
COACHES’ PERSPECTIVES ON PROVIDING
SOCIAL SUPPORT
Stefanee Opal Maurice
Follow this and additional works at: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd
Part of the Sports Studies Commons
SUPPORTING THE INJURED ATHLETE: COACHES’ PERSPECTIVES ON
PROVIDING SOCIAL SUPPORT
Stefanee Maurice
Dissertation submitted
to the College of Physical Activities and Sport Sciences
at West Virginia University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in
Sport and Exercise Psychology
Dana K. Voelker, Ph.D., Chair
Clayton R. Kuklick, Ph.D.
Damien Clement, Ph.D.
Jack C. Watson, II, Ph.D.
Department of Sport Sciences
Morgantown, WV
2019
Keywords: rehabilitation, coach-athlete relationship, sport injury, coaching
Copyright 2019 Stefanee Maurice
Abstract
SUPPORTING THE INJURED ATHLETE: COACHES’ PERSPECTIVES ON
PROVIDING SOCIAL SUPPORT
by Stefanee Maurice
Injury is an inevitable facet of sport participation, and injured athletes require support from
coaches. However, research on injured athletes highlights a lack of support from coaches. Building
on the conceptual model proposed by Maurice et al., this study uses the International Sport
Coaching Framework (ISCF) to examine ways contextual coaching knowledge is used to support
athletes throughout rehabilitation. Previous research has focused on the knowledge types but has
neither addressed the integration of the knowledges in a single study nor examined them in an
injury context. A generic qualitative approach was used to examine 13 NCAA DI coaches’
perception of their role during rehabilitation, their use of ISCF knowledge types, and perceived
barriers when supporting injured athletes. Analyzed using deductive coding strategies, coaches
reported integrating the knowledge types when supporting their injured athletes. Coaches’
perceived roles and barriers were also addressed by the knowledge types. Coaches emphasized
their role during the rehabilitation process was to continue communicating with their athletes and
know their players well enough to push them to return to play without furthering their athletes’
injuries. Barriers perceived by coaches in their efforts to provide support came from rules
developed by universities and NCAA limiting ways coaches could offer support. Coaches cited
injured athletes as barriers, explaining that athletes are not always honest with coaches about injury
severity and afraid to admit they are injured. Results of this study can be used to help coaches
identify effective uses of coaching knowledge to improve injured athletes’ rehabilitation
experiences.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
iii
The completion of this dissertation would not have been possible without the numerous sources of
social support I found. First, I would like to thank my chair, Dr. Dana Voelker, for her continuous
support and guidance throughout this process. Dr. Voelker has been dedicated to helping me get to
the finish line and I am so appreciative of all she has done to get me here. I would also like to thank
my committee members Drs. Kuklick, Watson, and Clement for their time and expertise that has
helped me get to this point. The staff within the college have been instrumental sources of both
informational and emotional support throughout the entire process. I would like to express my
gratitude to faculty in the counseling department and in the department of sport sciences, and my
supervisors at the Carruth Center for supporting over the years and through this project. I would also
like to acknowledge the funding support of the NCAA Graduate Student Research Grant and the
coaches who took part in this study.
To my students and colleagues at Cal Poly, thank you for all you have done to support me and my
research. I am so lucky to have found such a supportive home in academia.
Through the many ups and downs of completing this project, I was fortunate to have the unwavering
support of friends like Megan Byrd, Carra Johnson, Meghan Halbrook, Tammy Sheehy, Ashley
Samson, and so many others. I would also like to thank my family for their continuous support of
my educational pursuits and always believing in me.
iv
Table of Contents
Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ iii
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... iv
List of Figures .................................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... vii
Introduction ..........................................................................................................................1
International Sport Coaching Framework ..........................................................................3
Coaches’ Provision of Social Support................................................................................4
Integrating Coaching Knowledge into Injury Rehabilitation .............................................7
Gaps, Limitations, and Study Purpose ...............................................................................8
Methods ................................................................................................................................9
Researcher Positionality ....................................................................................................9
Study Design ................................................................................................................... 10
Participants ...................................................................................................................... 11
Procedures ....................................................................................................................... 12
Data Analysis .................................................................................................................. 15
Results ................................................................................................................................ 17
Professional Knowledge .................................................................................................. 17
Professional Knowledge of Resources ........................................................................ 18
Professional Knowledge of Injury Prevention ............................................................. 20
Professional Knowledge on Phases of Injury Rehabilitation ....................................... 21
Professional Knowledge on Injured Athletes’ Sustained Involvement ........................ 22
Professional Knowledge on Athlete Welfare............................................................... 23
Interpersonal Knowledge ................................................................................................. 26
Interpersonal Knowledge on Communicating with Injured Athletes ........................... 26
Interpersonal Knowledge on Perceiving Athletes as Barriers ...................................... 29
Intrapersonal Knowledge ................................................................................................. 30
Intrapersonal Knowledge on Personal Coaching Experiences ..................................... 30
Intrapersonal Knowledge on Personal Athletic Experiences ....................................... 32
An Extreme Case ............................................................................................................. 34
Discussion .......................................................................................................................... 35
Coaches’ Roles During Athletes’ Injury Experience ....................................................... 35
Coaches’ Use of the ISCF Knowledge Types to Support Injured Athletes ...................... 37
Coaches’ Perceived Barriers to Providing Social Support to Injured Athletes ................. 42
Limitations ...................................................................................................................... 44
Practical Implications ...................................................................................................... 45
Future Research ............................................................................................................... 49
Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 51
References .......................................................................................................................... 53
Appendix A: Literature Review .......................................................................................... 68
Psychological and Emotional Responses to Injury ...................................................... 68
Stages of Injury Rehabilitation .................................................................................... 72
v
Injury Response Model ............................................................................................... 73
Social Support ................................................................................................................. 74
Types of Social Support .............................................................................................. 75
Emotional ............................................................................................................... 75
Informational .......................................................................................................... 75
Tangible .................................................................................................................. 76
Role of Social Support in Injury Rehabilitation ............................................................... 77
Coaches as a Source of Social Support ............................................................................ 79
International Sport Coaching Framework ................................................................... 83
Professional Knowledge ......................................................................................... 84
Interpersonal Knowledge ........................................................................................ 85
Intrapersonal Knowledge ........................................................................................ 86
Athlete Outcomes........................................................................................................ 87
Coach-Athlete Relationships ....................................................................................... 88
Appendix B: Assumptions, Key Terms, and Limitations .................................................... 90
Assumptions .................................................................................................................... 90
Definition of Key Terms .................................................................................................. 90
Limitations ...................................................................................................................... 91
Appendix C: Researcher Positionality ................................................................................ 92
Appendix D: Data Collection ............................................................................................. 96
Semi-Structured Interview Guide .................................................................................... 96
Appendix E: Tables ............................................................................................................ 97
Appendix F: Figures ......................................................................................................... 103
vi
List of Figures
Figure 1. Integrated model of response to sport injury ...................................................... 103
vii
List of Tables
Table 1. Participant demographic information .................................................................... 97
Table 2. Interview questions aligned with the International Sport Coaching Framework ... 98
Table 3. Code map of iterations of analysis for Professional Knowledge ........................... 99
Table 4. Code map of iterations of analysis for Interpersonal Knowledge ........................ 101
Table 5. Code map of iterations of analysis for Intrapersonal Knowledge ........................ 102
COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES
1
SUPPORTING THE INJURED ATHLETE: COACHES’ PERSPECTIVES
ON PROVIDING SOCIAL SUPPORT
Approximately one million injuries were sustained by athletes participating in sport in the
National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) between 2009 and 2014 (Kerr et al., 2015).
Injury is an inevitable reality when participating in sport (Chalmers, 2002), and coaches must be
prepared to help athletes through injury rehabilitation. Initial evidence suggests coaches believe
their primary role during their athletes’ injury rehabilitation is helping them return to competition
(Podlog & Eklund, 2007b). More specifically, Fernandes et al. (2014) highlighted the importance
of coaches taking a holistic approach to improving injury outcomes for athletes, extending
beyond physical rehabilitation to include both social (e.g., helping athletes stay involved with
their team) and psychological factors (e.g., managing expectations, referring them to a sport
psychology consultant). This holistic approach helps athletes to make a full recovery, ensuring
the injury is physically healed and the athlete is psychologically ready to return to sport safely.
Social support is one tool available to coaches that helps them to address athletes’ emotional,
psychological, and social needs related to injury and has frequently been cited as one of the most
important psychosocial factors during athletes’ rehabilitation (Yang, Peek-Asa, Lowe, Heiden, &
Foster, 2010). Social support is defined as “an exchange of resources between at least two
individuals perceived by the provider or the recipient to be intended to enhance the well-being of
the recipient” (Shumaker & Brownell, 1984, p. 13). Johnston and Carroll (1998) found both
emotional and informational support from coaches was especially important to athletes as they
finished rehabilitation and began re-integrating into practice and competition. Further, Podlog
and Dionigi (2010) reported coaches used social support strategies such as goal setting, cognitive
reframing, and continued team involvement to improve injured athletes’ sense of competence,
COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES
2
autonomy, and relatedness throughout rehabilitation. Awareness of athletes’ needs and
knowledge on specific approaches are crucial to effectively supporting athletes whose responses
to injury may be highly variable and dependent on the individual.
The integrated model of response to sport injury (Wiese-Bjornstal, Smith, Shaffer, &
Morrey, 1998) offers a framework from which to explore the psychological response to athletic
injury. Specifically, the integrated model demonstrates the dynamic nature of injury
rehabilitation; both personal factors (e.g., injury severity, injury type, gender, age, athletic
identity) and situational factors (e.g., type of sport, coach influence, social support provision,
rehabilitation environment) influence athletes’ cognitive appraisal of their injury, which informs
both emotional and behavioral responses. Within the model, social support and coach influences
are recognized as situational factors that can positively or negatively affect how athletes evaluate
their injuries. When athletes negatively appraise their injuries, they may experience greater
frustration, depression, and anxiety, which can hinder their desire to comply with rehabilitation
protocols (Clement, Arvinen-Barrow, & Fetty, 2015; Johnston & Carroll, 1998).
Social support research highlights a need for not only a greater amount of support being
offered by coaches, but also better-quality support as well (Abgarov, Jeffery-Tosoni, Baker, &
Fraser-Thomas, 2012; Ruddock-Hudson, O’Halloran, & Murphy, 2012; Ruddock-Hudson,
O’Halloran, & Murphy, 2014). In one study on college athletes’ injury experiences, athletes
reported their coaches doubted the severity of their injuries and that discussing their injuries with
their coaches was challenging (Abgarov et al., 2012). Similarly, Ruddock-Hudson et al. (2012)
found professional footballers reported a lack of support from coaches and desired more
interactions with coaches during rehabilitation. Additionally, these athletes described their
coaches as pushing them to return to play rather than taking the time to rehabilitate. In the
COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES
3
Ruddock-Hudson et al. (2014) study of professional footballers, the athletes reported coaches
offered support immediately following the injury, which dramatically declined once athletes
began rehabilitation. Although these studies suggest coaches do not offer support that is both
needed and desired by athletes during injury rehabilitation, there are a dearth of solutions for
improving these circumstances. Perhaps some of the frustration athletes experienced comes from
the difference between their expectations for how their coaches should support them and what
coaches are truly capable of providing. For example, Ruddock-Hudson et al. (2012) found a
small number of the athletes in their study recognized coaches need to balance simultaneous and
competing demands, such as coaching their team while supporting their injured athletes. A
critical need exists to examine how coaches perceive the provision of social support to injured
athletes and how their coaching knowledge may impact their willingness and ability to do so
effectively. Maurice, Kuklick, and Anderson (2017) proposed using the International Sport
Coaching Framework (ISCF; ICCE, 2014) to examine how coaches use specific forms of
coaching knowledge to navigate athletes’ injury experiences, specifically regarding their
attitudes and behaviors towards providing social support during athletes’ rehabilitation.
International Sport Coaching Framework
The ISCF was developed by the International Council for Coaching Excellence (ICCE,
2014) and highlights the knowledge effective coaches should possess to promote positive athlete
outcomes, such as competence, confidence, connection, and character (Côté & Gilbert, 2009).
Knowledge is categorized into three types: professional, interpersonal, and intrapersonal.
Professional knowledge refers to tactical and procedural understanding (Cassidy, Jones, & Potrac,
2009), which may include providing information about the injury or specific activities athletes
can engage in that will not aggravate their injuries further. Professional knowledge may also
COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES
4
assist coaches in referring athletes to other professionals who can help. Interpersonal knowledge
refers to the social aspect of coaching (Bowes & Jones, 2006). Coaches can implement
interpersonal knowledge with their injured athletes to gain a better understanding of the social
support needs of their athletes, which are dependent upon the type of stressor experienced (i.e.,
optimal matching hypothesis; Cutrona, 1990; Cutrona & Russell, 1990). Social support from
coaches that is misaligned with athletes’ needs can be perceived by athletes as non-supportive
and represent a poor use of interpersonal knowledge. Lastly, intrapersonal knowledge refers to
coaches’ ability to reflect and be introspective (Côté & Gilbert, 2009). Coaches can use
intrapersonal knowledge to improve their interactions with injured athletes and help create a safe
and positive environment for athletes to recover from their injuries. Despite the reality that injury is
an inevitable facet of sport (Chalmers, 2002), there is a lack of research examining coaches as a
component of the rehabilitation experience. By using the ISCF and its three knowledge types as a
framework, researchers can begin to gain insight into coaches’ expectations and experiences with
injury and potentially offer explanations for why athletes have felt unsupported by their coaches
(Maurice et al., 2017).
Coaches’ Provision of Social Support
Several studies have examined how coaches have engaged with their injured athletes
during their recovery. In a study of eight professional coaches of high-performance athletes
(i.e., national to Olympic level), Podlog and Dionigi (2010) found coaches acknowledged the
difficulties their athletes faced (i.e., re-injury anxiety, lack of confidence or time pressure). The
coaches also identified strategies that helped them support injured athletes, such as forming a
treatment team, having open communication, and offering social support. Coaches within this
study expressed the value of social support as a critical component of the recovery process for
COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES
5
their athletes and a need to take a more individualized approach to help athletes return to
practice and competition (i.e., using interpersonal knowledge). Within the provision of social
support, coaches needed to not only tailor their approach to their specific athletes (i.e.,
interpersonal knowledge), they also helped the athletes adjust and manage their training plans
(i.e., professional and intrapersonal knowledge). Though the professional coaches in this study
appeared to be incorporating elements of the ISCF coaching knowledge when working with
their injured athletes, these coaches represent the behaviors of only eight coaches at an elite
level of sport and these views may not transfer to coaches’ views at other levels of sport (e.g.,
high school, college).
Further, evidence suggests a discrepancy exists between the degree of social support
coaches believe they provide and the amount of social support injured athletes report receiving
from coaches (Corbillon, Crossman, & Jamieson, 2008; Gould, Udry, Bridges, & Beck, 1997;
Udry, Gould, Bridges, & Tuffey, 1997). For example, some professional coaches have explained
their primary role in injury rehabilitation is to prepare athletes for a return to competition
(Podlog & Eklund, 2007b) while athletes have expressed that coaches frequently leave them to
make their own decisions about how to best return from injury (Udry et al., 1997). Injured
athletes who are without social support during their rehabilitation may experience higher levels
of depression (Clement & Shannon, 2011), and athletes who are dissatisfied with the social
support they received are likely to experience psychological distress (Green & Weinberg, 2001).
Udry et al. (1997) interviewed members of the U.S. Ski Team who had sustained season-ending
injuries and found these athletes perceived their coaches to be the most negative influence during
their rehabilitation period. Specifically, these athletes felt ignored during their recovery as
coaches reduced or stopped communication with them entirely. In other instances, the athletes
COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES
6
felt coaches were insensitive to injuries and reported coaches thought they were a problem and
did not believe fully in the extent of injuries. Additionally, the athletes explained their coaches
did not express confidence in their ability to return from injuries and were often unavailable to
help during rehabilitation, which left the athletes to manage their recovery on their own. This
study, however, focused solely on the interpretations of the athletes without giving voice to
coaches. Many of the studies reporting a lack of social support from coaches (e.g., Abgarov et
al., 2012; Ruddock-Hudson et al., 2012; Ruddock-Hudson et al., 2014) have not included
coaches. By focusing solely on athletes, researchers cannot fully explain why coaches do not
offer social support that athletes find beneficial.
Injured athletes have reported seeking out and receiving social support most frequently
from their athletic trainers (Clement & Shannon, 2011; Robbins & Rosenfeld, 2001; Yang et al.,
2010), which may be due to the quantity of time spent with athletic trainers during injury
recovery or the perceived unavailability of coaches who are focused on participating athletes
(Ruddock-Hudson et al., 2014). When athletes have reported receiving support from their
coaches, they most frequently cited their coaches as providing informational support (Johnston &
Carroll, 2000; Johnston & Carroll, 1998; Corbillon et al., 2008; Rosenfeld, Richman, & Hardy,
1989). Informational support may include education about the injury, feedback about their return
timeframe, or their role on the team. Injured athletes have reported coaches do not care about
their recovery and remain distant while the injured athletes recover (Udry et al., 1997), which
suggests coaches may not be offering enough emotional support. Tangible support may be more
difficult for coaches to provide due to organizational restrictions (i.e., NCAA). Robbins and
Rosenfeld (2001) suggested, in some cases, coaches did not offer extra support for injured
athletes because it may be perceived as unfair to the rest of their team, even if coaches were
COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES
7
aware that the addition of support would have been helpful. Thus, it appears essential for coaches
to help injured athletes create a network that includes many people who can meet their diverse
social support needs.
Integrating Coaching Knowledge into Injury Rehabilitation
For athletes rehabilitating an injury, maintaining a connection to their coaches is an
essential part of progressing effectively through the stages of rehabilitation (i.e., occurrence of
injury, rehabilitation, return to competition) and returning to competition (Bianco, 2001; Podlog
& Dionigi, 2010). In the initial injury stage, athletes who sustain an injury first experience an
emotional response characterized by uncertainty about the remainder of their season or their
ability to continue participating in their sport (Johnston & Carroll, 2000; Madrigal & Gill, 2014;
McDonald & Hardy, 1990). Using interpersonal knowledge, coaches can be a source of
emotional support for athletes and assist athletes in maintaining their connections to the team.
In the second stage, athletes receive a diagnosis and begin their rehabilitation (Bianco, 2007).
Athletes rehabilitating an injury are susceptible to feelings of grief (Evans & Hardy, 1995;
Tracey, 2003) and low self-esteem (Deroche, Stephan, Brewer, & Le Scanff, 2007) as they are
now physically removed from their sport environment. Coaches, then, may find time becomes a
barrier as they attempt to engage with injured athletes who are not active in practices and
games. Coaches may have the opportunity to demonstrate their professional knowledge as it
relates not only to the specific injury but also to the injury recovery process. However, it can be
argued offering specific information on the injury itself is outside the bounds of coaching
competency and perceived as a barrier by coaches. Finally, in the third stage, athletes finish
their rehabilitation and return to their sport. During the last phase, athletes can experience
doubts about their physical competence and negative psychological responses, such as re-injury
COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES
8
anxiety (Houston, Cross, Saliba, & Hertel, 2014; Podlog & Eklund, 2007a). Coaches can use
intrapersonal knowledge by engaging in reflection with injured athletes to highlight the effort
put in and the progress athletes have made throughout the process of rehabilitation. Due to the
degree of influence coaches have on their athletes, there is great potential for coaches to
actively support athletes throughout the stages of rehabilitation by using various coaching
knowledge types and promoting positive outcomes (Bianco, 2007).
Gaps, Limitations, and Study Purpose
Coaches may be under the impression they are already providing social support to their
injured athletes (Podlog & Dionigi, 2010), but as research has shown (e.g., Abgarov et al., 2012),
athletes are not satisfied with the support coaches are providing. Dissatisfaction with coaches’
quantity and quality of social support has the potential to create negative consequences for injured
athletes. Much of the research on social support for injured athletes has been from the perspective
of the athletes and has not included coaches (e.g., Abgarov et al., 2012; Corbillon et al., 2008;
Ruddock-Hudson et al., 2014). The research that has examined coaches’ perspectives on injury
rehabilitation (e.g., Podlog & Eklund, 2007b; Podlog & Dionigi, 2010) was completed almost a
decade ago and did not use a framework specific to coaching. There also remains a dearth of
literature on coaches at the collegiate level, which represents a competitive environment dependent
upon preventing injuries and returning athletes to play quickly. In National Collegiate Athletic
Association (NCAA) Division I (DI) sports, arguably the most competitive of any collegiate sport
division, the pressure placed on athletes can be as intense as some professional sports leagues
(Beron & Piquero, 2016; Huml, 2018). NCAA DI athletics are operated like a business despite
athletes being labeled as amateurs and receiving little compensation in return for the stressors they
endure, such as injury (Sanderson & Siegfried, 2018). In the business of college athletics, coaches’
COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES
9
jobs often depend on their teams’ success. It is in the interest of college coaches, and their athletic
departments, to keep their athletes healthy to produce the best results. Given the unique context of
NCAA DI sport, it is vital to create environments that both support athletes’ well-being and allow
coaches to use their knowledge and experiences to support their athletes. Until college coaches
have been studied, researchers and those involved in college athletics will continue to have an
incomplete understanding on how coaches can effectively interact with their injured athletes.
The purpose of this study was to explore collegiate coaches’ knowledge related to the
provision of social support to injured athletes throughout the phases of rehabilitation and return
to competition. Using the ISCF as a guiding framework, this study had three primary goals: (1)
gain insight into how coaches perceived their role in providing social support throughout the
injury recovery process, (2) explore how coaches used the ISCF knowledge types in the context
of supporting injured athletes, and (3) explore what coaches perceived to be barriers to their
delivery of effective social support.
Researcher Positionality
Methods
The researcher’s epistemology is that of a social constructivist. Social constructivism
recognizes the impact culture and context have on an individual and how they experience the
world and create their own meaning (Crotty, 1998; Fish, 1990). Social constructivists do not see
an absolute truth, but rather they acknowledge all meaningful realities are socially constructed
and influenced by culture (Crotty, 1998). The participants in this study were examined, not with
an absolute truth of what is right and wrong, but with an appreciation for their culture and
context to gain insight into how this shaped their views of coaching injured athletes. The
COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES
10
researcher recognized that the coaches’ reality and her own reality are the result of social
processes and are limited to the context in which they were experienced.
Study Design
A generic qualitative approach, also referred to as an eclectic design, was used to explore
coaches’ perceptions regarding their roles in the injury recovery process, the ways they use the
ISCF knowledge types, and barriers they perceive in supporting their injured athletes. The
exploratory approach needed to address the purpose of the current study does not fit neatly into
one specific methodology. Merriam (1988) described studies using the generic qualitative
approach as those that “simply seek to discover and understand a phenomenon, a process, or the
perspectives and worldviews of the people involved” (p. 11). Percy, Kostere, and Kostere (2015)
described the need for generic qualitative approaches when “the researcher has a body of pre
knowledge/pre-understandings” about the topic in question that the researcher “wants to be able
to more fully describe from the participants’ perspective” (p. 78). In the case of the current study,
the researcher has knowledge of the research suggesting that athletes do not feel fully supported
by their head coaches and is using this exploration to gain the perspective of head coaches and
the ways they use their coaching knowledge in the context of athletic injury. Generic qualitative
approaches also seek to gain a broader range of experiences from a more diverse sample,
supporting the current study’s focus on maximum variation sampling (Percy et al., 2015).
According to Cooper and Endacott (2007) and Caelli, Ray, and Mill (2003), generic qualitative
approaches should have an explicit focus on their theoretical position to enhance the rigor of the
studies. As a social constructivist, it was important for the researcher in the current study to focus
on how coaches used their ISCF knowledge types within their unique context and culture. Thus,
a generic qualitative approach was most appropriate for this inquiry.
COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES
11
Participants
Participants were 13 NCAA DI head coaches (Mage = 45.85, SD = 11.2) including five
women (Mage = 38.6, SD = 12.7) and eight men (Mage = 50.4, SD = 7.87) from 13 DI universities
in the United States. Five coaches (2 female, 3 males) came from mid-sized universities (student
population of 3,000-9,999) and eight (3 females, 5 males) from large universities (student
population of at least 10,000). Four coaches were from universities without a football program (2
female, 2 male), four from universities with football programs in the Football Championship
Subdivision (1 female, 3 males), and five from universities with football programs in the
Football Bowl Subdivision (2 females, 3 males). The participants’ head coaching experience at
the DI level ranged from 1 to 23 years (M = 9.1 years) and four to 31 years (M = 18.5 years) in
any NCAA division. The sports coached by men within this sample included men’s and
women’s basketball, baseball, football, women’s golf, women’s ice hockey, and men’s and
women’s tennis. Sports coached by women within this sample included men’s and women’s
swimming and diving, women’s gymnastics, women’s rowing, women’s soccer, and women’s
volleyball (see Table 1 for more demographic information).
The coaches in this study had experience in coaching athletes who had sustained an
injury and returned to participation within the past year. The injured athlete must have sustained
at least a minor injury causing time-loss from their sport (e.g., 4-7 days; Hagglund, Walder,
Bahr, & Ekstrand, 2005), defined as “a physical complaint resulting from sports participation
that forces the athlete to interrupt or modify his usual training plan for at least one training unit”
during their competitive season (Malisoux, Frisch, Urhausen, Seil, & Theisen, 2013, p. 2896).
Coaches were excluded from the study if their most recent athlete injury experience occurred
more than one year ago, their athlete did not return to competition following an injury, or if their
COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES
12
only experience with injury was a head injury, season-ending, or career-ending injury. Head
injuries were excluded from this study due to differences in athletes’ cognitive and emotional
responses compared to those experiencing musculoskeletal injuries (Hutchison, Comper,
Mainwaring, & Richard, 2011; Hutchison, Mainwaring, Comper, Richards & Bisschop, 2009).
Procedures
After receiving Institutional Review Board approval, participants were contacted for
recruitment using a purposive sampling approach. The researcher used the United States Census
Bureau’s regions to seek out maximum variation within the sample. There are nine regions total
(Pacific, Mountain, South Atlantic, Middle Atlantic, New England, West South Central, East
South Central, West North Central, and East North Central) that were used to identify NCAA DI
coaches for participation. The researcher contacted 188 head coaches across the nine regions via
email with information about the study and details for inclusion criteria if they wished to
participate. The researcher attempted to contact the selected coaches via email and telephone up
to three times in a 10-day period before moving onto another coach in the region. The number of
coaches contacted per region ranged from two to 68. Due to their low numbers, female coaches
were identified and contacted first and in the following order: those who coached men’s teams,
co-ed teams, and women’s teams. From there, male coaches were identified and contacted to
achieve maximum variation within the sample (e.g., varied ages, sport and gender of athletes
coached). Using the maximum variation sampling strategy to achieve a heterogeneous sample
was desirable in this study because of the dearth of research on coaches and injury; it was
important to first gain the perspective of a diverse group who had varied coaching experiences
rather than focus on one specific demographic of coaches. Interviewing the sample of coaches
within this study using the maximum variation sampling strategy allowed the researcher to
COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES
13
uncover a broader spectrum of coach experiences (Miles et al., 2014). The final sample included
13 coaches who volunteered to participate (6.9% response rate); all met eligibility criteria.
Coaches who agreed to participate in the study were sent a cover letter detailing what
their participation would entail and how they would be compensated for their time (i.e., coaching
book). The researcher conducted interviews lasting 10 to 57 minutes over the phone or a video
chat service, such as Skype, which were audio-recorded. The mode of communication for each
interview was determined by the participant based on their interest and comfort level. Eleven of
the coaches were traveling to practice or competitions while being interviewed and chose to be
interviewed over the phone.
Data were collected using a semi-structured interview guide (Bellamy, Ostini, Martini, &
Kairuz, 2016; Mertens, 1998). The semi-structured interview guide provided the researcher with
flexibility to probe participant responses further while allowing her to maintain a level of
consistency throughout her participant interviews. Each interview began by developing rapport
with the coaches and building trust by explaining the researcher’s interest in giving coaches a
voice in the literature as well as describing her family’s history in coaching. The interview
questions were developed based on the core components of the ISCF, addressing multiple
knowledge types (i.e., professional, interpersonal, and intrapersonal knowledge), and the stages
of rehabilitation (see Table 2 for interview guide mapped onto the ISCF). Social constructivism
shaped the format of the interview questions to elicit responses from coaches that would provide
insight into both their specific social context and how their interactions and experiences shape
their understanding of their world (Cushion, 2011; Crotty, 1998). The audio recordings and
transcripts were kept in Filelocker, a software service that encrypted the files and protected
participant confidentiality. The participants were reminded at both the start and close of the
COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES
14
interviews their confidentiality was of the utmost importance to the researcher. Participants were
given the opportunity to choose their own pseudonyms so their identities may be protected in any
representation of the data. Data collection spanned several months, throughout which the data
was also transcribed and coded.
After interviews were transcribed and the researcher began coding the interviews,
participants were contacted again to engage in member reflections (Smith & McGannon, 2017).
Three of the 13 coaches responded to the researcher’s follow-up to conduct member reflections.
Member reflections were used to create a shared dialogue between the participant and the
researcher about the analysis of the results. The member reflections allowed the participants to
ask questions about the interpretation of the data as well as opportunities to evaluate and provide
feedback and on the researcher’s findings (Tracy, 2010). The member reflections were a co
participatory process that furthered the researcher’s understanding of the data. During this
conversation, the coaches were also given the opportunity to add to the information they
provided in their initial interview. The researcher prompted the participants with member
reflection questions, which provided the participants an opportunity to give an opinion after
hearing the researcher’s interpretations and shape the emerging analysis (Tracy, 2013). For
example, after explaining her interpretation of the coaches’ perceptions of athletes as barriers to
coaches’ delivery of social support, the researcher asked the participants what they thought of the
interpretation and what that means to the participants in their specific context (i.e., within their
team). The member reflections were not about verification but rather were intended to further the
researcher’s interpretations of the findings and yield further insight. From these member
reflections, the researcher learned that the coaches found value and meaning in the researcher’s
interpretations of the data (Tracy, 2013). Conducting member reflections rather than member
COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES
15
checks allowed the researcher to engage in both epistemological constructionism (i.e., as
knowledge is socially constructed, knowledge is not free from theory and understandings prior to
engaging with participants) and ontological relativism (i.e., the perception of reality is dependent
upon the mind experiencing it) (Smith & McGannon, 2017), which complemented her social
constructivist epistemology. Upon the completion of member reflections, all coaches who
participated in the study were given a coaching book in appreciation of their volunteer
participation.
Data Analysis
The current study used the ISCF knowledge types as a guiding framework to conduct a
thematic analysis of the data. The researcher first familiarized herself with the data by listening
to the audio recordings of the coach interviews and reading the transcripts for accuracy and
familiarity. While engaging with the data, the researcher created analytic memos (Miles,
Huberman, & Saldaña, 2014) to denote interpretations of the data from collection through
analysis. The interpretations noted in the memos pertained to how interview responses aligned
with components of the ISCF and initial patterns within each coach’s unique context (i.e., sport,
experiences). As a social constructivist, it was of value to take note of how coaches explained,
and ascribed meaning to, the culture of their team, such as the way coaches engage differently
with male and female athletes.
The ISCF knowledge types were used as a guide for coding, which occurred in two
cycles: (1) deductive in vivo coding and (2) focused coding. Deductive in vivo coding was
selected as the method of analysis over inductive coding because of the need to identify codes
connected to the existing framework (i.e., ISCF). The researcher used deductive in vivo coding
during the initial coding process to identify the presence or omission of the ISCF knowledge
COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES
16
types. In vivo coding is appropriate when the researcher wants to honor the voices and the
language used by the participants (Saldaña, 2013; Stringer, 1999). As a social constructivist, it
was essential for the researcher to select a coding approach focused on the language used by the
participants to better understand their lived experiences, such as the way they addressed concepts
like perceived responsibility in their role as the head coach or descriptions of relationships with
their athletes. Saldaña (2013) explains that in vivo coding allows a researcher to highlight the
most significant ways the participant speaks about a phenomenon by coding components such as
action verbs, impactful nouns, clever phrases, and/or repetition of words and phrases. One
participant was analyzed separately as an extreme case due to distinct dissimilarities in the
interview content and process as compared to the remaining participants. These distinctions are
examined and described in further detail at the end of the results section. First cycle coding
resulted in a list of codes related to each of the ISCF knowledge types.
Second cycle coding consisted of the method of focused coding (Charmaz, 2006), which
allowed the researcher to use the most frequent and salient codes to create categories, subthemes,
and themes related to how coaches perceived their roles in the recovery process, the ways
coaches used their ISCF knowledge types to support their athletes, and the barriers perceived by
coaches as impeding their delivery of effective social support. A detailed map of these iterations
is provided in Tables 3 through 5. During this process, the researcher continued to construct her
understanding of the lived experiences of the coaches and the ways they made sense of their
interactions. To enhance credibility, critical friends (Smith & McGannon, 2017) were used to
process the researcher’s biases after she created codes, sub-themes, and themes from the data.
The use of critical friends allowed for varying perspectives to view the data and were used for
“challenging and developing interpretations made by any one researcher as they construct, not
COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES
17
find or discover through consensus, a coherent and theoretically sound argument to construct,
support and defend the case they are making” (Smith & McGannon, 2017, p. 13). The researcher
used two levels of critical friend engagement throughout the analysis. The first critical friend has
experience in qualitative inquiry and has conducted research on the psychology of injury; her
role as a critical friend began when the sub-themes and themes were first developed by the
researcher. This individual challenged the researcher’s interpretations of the data to consolidate,
clarify, and organize the sub-themes and themes. The second critical friend has experience in
qualitative research and the coaching literature. This individual was engaged following the
development of an initial theme structure and challenged the researchers’ interpretations to
achieve additional theme refinement, clarity, and parsimony (e.g., Are these ideas distinct? What
makes them so? How might this theme be re-labeled to more clearly reflect the contents of the
data?). Each critical friend was used to clarify the researcher’s process and basis for
interpretation, including impressions and interpretations. Both critical friends and the researcher
maintained records of these conversations for the audit trail and later reflection by the researcher.
Results
The results are organized according to the ISCF knowledge types (i.e., professional,
interpersonal, and intrapersonal), which were used as a framework for the analysis. Themes and
subthemes are described within each knowledge type with key quotes from coaches.
Professional Knowledge
Five themes characterized coaches’ demonstration of professional knowledge in the
context of athletes’ injuries: (a) using resources, (b) injury prevention, (c) phases of injury
rehabilitation, (d) sustaining injured athletes’ involvement, and (e) athlete welfare. See Table 3
for the iterations of analysis for professional knowledge.
COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES
18
Professional knowledge of resources. The ability to recognize when to use a resource,
and which resource is the most appropriate, is an important demonstration of professional
knowledge as it relates to injured athletes. Relative to professional knowledge of resources, two
sub-themes were identified: (a) the network roles that need to be fulfilled to support injured
athletes and (b) the accessibility of resources for supporting injured athletes.
Within the first sub-theme, coaches described the network of individuals needed to fully
support their injured athletes, such as doctors and sport psychology consultants. All 13 coaches
emphasized the importance of having a network of professionals (e.g., athletic trainers, doctors,
and sport psychologists) as resources to help them support their injured athletes. Howard, a
baseball coach, described the need to “rely on the medical professional. And most importantly,
for Division I, or any coach, you have to listen to the medical professional.” Howard further
expressed:
As a coach, I have no medical expertise; none. I understand baseball and I understand
movements related to baseball and things that need to happen, but structurally and
medically, I don't, so I always lean on professionals to guide me if I'm unaware.
Many of the coaches relied on athletic trainers, sometimes described as medical professionals, as
their primary resource when athletes sustained injuries and expressed the value of using their
athletic training staff when designing training plans. All the coaches discussed the importance of
listening to their athletic trainers and trusting they have athletes’ best interests in mind, as
demonstrated by women’s soccer coach, Lauren:
Listen to your medical staff, if they're telling you to do something, don't overrule them.
As much as sometimes I want to strangle my AT, she's not trying to sabotage us and she's
COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES
19
not trying to control my decisions, she's trying to give me all the information I need to
make the best one.
The coaches also addressed the value of sport psychology consultants as members of a support
team. All the coaches reported having access to sport psychology services, but Claire
(gymnastics), Kevin (women’s basketball), Lauren (women’s soccer), Noah (men’s and
women’s tennis) and Owen (men’s basketball) were the only coaches making referrals for these
services. Coaches who made referrals to sport psychology services understood the role sport
psychology has during recovery, as Noah, a men’s and women’s tennis coach, explained:
If you have somebody in your department to refer them to where they can get that help,
because many times it's not the injury that's affecting the player after they're back on the
fields or the courts, it's the psychological hurdle that they have to get over.
Within the second sub-theme, coaches described the accessibility of resources for
supporting injured athletes. For some coaches, the lack of medical resources available impacted
their ability to find support for their athletes (e.g., informational support for their injury). Noah
(men’s and women’s tennis) discussed this in his interview, “we were under-equipped in the
sports medicine department. Very small room, very few people working in there to service the
sport. So, a lot of times we couldn't get in to see him when we needed to.” David (women’s
soccer) reported, “we don't have that overall access over a 12-hour day to all facilities, where we
can schedule what works for us so that we can maintain that strength so that we limit some of
those injuries.” The way resources were allocated varied based on the sport and athletes’ status
on the team. Mason (football) explained: “I guarantee, the number 10 guy would get [the MRI].
And the number 101 guy would wait until it was paid for by their insurance, which I think is
wrong.” Coaches, such as Noah (men’s and women’s tennis) and David (women’s soccer), were
COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES
20
attempting to use their professional knowledge to support their athletes, but were limited to the
resources available to them.
Professional knowledge of injury prevention. Relative to the theme of professional
knowledge of injury prevention, coaches described the importance of using and staying current
on proper training techniques and helping athletes with the mental aspects of injury. Many
coaches noted a lack of medical knowledge but were knowledgeable of injury prevention (e.g.,
fatigue, poor training) and applying instructional techniques to reduce injury incidence. For
example, Lauren (women’s soccer) explained, “we are very strict on teaching correct technique
because although it doesn't completely eradicate injury, it minimizes it and there's plenty of
research on that.” David (women’s soccer), expressed his concerns about his athletes’ being
fatigued during competition:
I know that the longer you leave someone in a situation where they start to fatigue, the
more likely it is that they're going to pick up an injury, because they can't play at the
same level when they get fatigued as they did when they first went into a game.
Many of the coaches felt prepared and educated on how to use preventive approaches to
injury, such as addressing training techniques, but felt less knowledgeable about what to do after
the injury was sustained. The coaches shared candidly that their medical knowledge regarding
injury is limited but they expressed a desire to continue to learn more and educate themselves
about their athletes’ injuries, as expressed by Tanya (women’s volleyball):
I am very candid about what I don't know and I have no problem asking our athletic
trainers just, "Wow, I've never seen this before. I don't even know what you're talking
about with this injury. So, can you explain it to me? Because I don't know."
COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES
21
Emily (women’s rowing), however, had stopped trying to learn more about injuries: “I'm not
allowed to do stuff with them [injured athletes]. I have to stay hands off…But as far as me
looking for more information, I've stopped doing that here because they [the university]
discourage us from doing that.” Emily’s situation appeared to be unique to her university as this
was not expressed by any other coach.
Professional knowledge on phases of injury rehabilitation. Professional knowledge in
the athletic injury context requires coaches to be aware of the phases of injury rehabilitation and
the ways athletes’ needs may vary across each phase. Relative to professional knowledge of the
phases of injury rehabilitation, two sub-themes were identified: (a) managing their own
emotional responses to athletes’ injuries and (b) being cognizant of performance decrements that
may occur as a part of the recovery process.
Within the first sub-theme, coaches described a need to monitor their own emotional
responses during the occurrence of injury phase of rehabilitation. Coaches recognized their
reactions to athletes’ injuries often impacted their athletes’ reactions. Coaches were asked to
describe how they engage with athletes throughout the phases of rehabilitation (i.e., occurrence
of injury, treatment and recovery, and return to full competition). Lauren’s (women’s soccer)
explanation of her reaction to injuries was like other coaches, where staying calm herself was a
necessary element of keeping her athlete calm:
I try to be very calm and try and just reiterate, ‘Hey, it's part of the game. You're not the
first, you're not the last.’ I just try and take the emotion out of it, because it's a very
emotional time.
Claire, a women’s gymnastics coach, explained the importance of managing emotional
responses based on injury severity:
COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES
22
If it's something that happens in practice and it's a one-time impact kind of injury, we
obviously go to the athlete right away and give them the care that they need. If it's an
over time kind of thing, we usually check in periodically, and work with them on what
makes the most sense for them to do that day, whether it's rehab, or if they have to alter
practice in any way.
Within the second sub-theme, coaches described the importance of acknowledging the
ways athletes’ performance may decline because of their inability to participate in practice and
training during the treatment and recovery phases of rehabilitation. Owen (men’s basketball),
noted:
Yeah, I think the main thing when those guys get hurt is when they come back, their
conditioning is not as good as it was before they left. And so physically they struggle a
little bit just kind of getting their bodies back on a little bit.
Noah (men’s and women’s tennis) echoed this sentiment:
We know that they're more than likely not going be hitting exactly like they were, or
performing exactly like they were before the injury, based on how long it was. And we
also know that they could get extra critical, or disappointed, or negative towards their
game, when it's not coming right back.
Professional knowledge on injured athletes’ sustained involvement. Relative to
professional knowledge on injured athletes’ sustained involvement, all the coaches stressed the
importance of keeping athletes involved with the team after they have become injured. Coaches
described strategies they use to incorporate their injured athletes into practice. Doing this
allowed athletes to maintain contact with their team and for some, get physical conditioning. The
COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES
23
coaches shared a belief that being around the team would keep athletes involved with the team’s
progress. Kevin (women’s basketball) explained:
I want them to be at practice and I want them around the team. Just not be away from
them, so I expect them at practice…I make them take notes, make sure they know what’s
going on so they don’t get behind.
Some coaches provided challenges for injured athletes to keep them engaged, such as Claire
(women’s gymnastics):
We've given one of our athletes a challenge, and she needs to reach out to three different
people during practice, and encourage them. So, giving them ways that they can become
really good teammates during this time and not all the focus is just on the rehab... I think
that's really key for getting them mentally out of the struggles of the injury.
Coaches described the value of maintaining a social connection to their teammates by giving
injured athletes new roles on the team. Coaches shared their technique of assigning injured
athletes new roles to keep them engaged in practice, such as Lauren (women’s soccer):
A big help has been just giving them other roles, so they have a specific role at practice.
So even if it's things like, "Hey, I need the waters. Can you help me set practice up?" Go
through the practice plan with them, just so they feel like they're part of it.
Ultimately, coaches seemed to prefer athletes do their rehabilitation exercises during team
training times to still be involved in the team activities.
Professional knowledge on athlete welfare. Coaches expressed the importance of
keeping their players safe. Relative to professional knowledge on athlete welfare, two sub
themes were identified: (a) how to make the right decision about return to play and (b) having a
person-first focus.
COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES
24
Within the first sub-theme, coaches described the importance of trusting both their
athletes and medical staff regarding readiness to return. When it came to making decisions about
returning to play, coaches frequently described the need to keep their athletes’ welfare in mind.
Howard, a baseball coach, shared:
My responsibility is to have a good understanding of each player's ability to deal with
things…And like I said, we got measures in place to protect these young kids and make
sure they're not in any danger, and hopefully, we'll continue to monitor and keep those
types of things from happening.
In some cases, coaches had to sit down with athletes and remind them to focus on recovering,
like Allison, a men’s and women’s swimming and diving coach:
A true athlete's going to want to, after an injury, get back as soon as possible, but you
have to be willing to say, "No, you're not ready," and say, "Just give it another week or
two weeks." And that's kind of what you have to do with those ones.
Tanya (women’s volleyball) explained:
I think it's a huge responsibility of the coach to acknowledge that and really dial back and
figure out a way to progress that player back, where it's not rushing them and yet still
pushing them… I think it's our responsibility as the coach to really dictate how we get
them back without stressing them out, feeling, "Oh my gosh, I have to get back this
quickly, I need to be back on the floor, my team needs me." All of that, I think, it's our
responsibility to keep the athletes safe.
Within the second sub-theme, coaches described a need to focus on their athletes as a
person and not on their win-loss record while their injured athletes recover. Allison (men’s and
COACH PROVIDED SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR INJURED ATHLETES
25
women’s swimming and diving) extended the notion of keeping athletes safe and treating them
as people:
Know at the end of the day, they [athletes] and their well-being and them...They as a
person, is more important than your win-los
Les avis et les commentaires de IA Copilot
tigma, Attitudes, and Intentions to Seek Mental Health Services in College Student-Athletes : Stigma, Attitudes, and Intentions to Seek Mental Health Services
in College Student-Athletes
Robert C. Hilliard M.S.
West Virginia University, rchilliard@mix.wvu.edu
Follow this and additional works at: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd
Part of the Counseling Commons, and the Sports Studies Commons
Recommended Citation
Hilliard, Robert C. M.S., "Stigma, Attitudes, and Intentions to Seek Mental Health Services in College
Student-Athletes" (2019). Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports. 4126.
https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd/4126
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Stigma, attitudes, and intentions to seek mental health services in college student-athletes
Robert C. Hilliard Jr.
Dissertation submitted
to the College of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences
at West Virginia University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctorate of Philosophy in
Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology
Jack C. Watson II, PhD, Chair
Samuel Zizzi, EdD
Edward Etzel, EdD
Aaron Metzger, PhD
Department of Sport Sciences
Morgantown, WV
2019
Keywords: counseling; help-seeking behavior; well-being; sport psychology; quantitative
Copyright 2019 Robert Hilliard
ABSTRACT
Stigma, attitudes, and intentions to seek mental health services in college student-athletes
Robert Hilliard
Previous researchers have found several factors that act as barriers to college student-athletes
seeking mental health services (López & Levy, 2013; Moore, 2017). One common factor
throughout these studies is stigma, which is known to be associated with less favorable attitudes
toward seeking help (Moreland et al., 2018). However, researchers have not explored how
stigma and attitudes might influence intentions to seek counseling and actual help-seeking
behaviors in student-athletes. Additionally, there is a dearth of research identifying the topics for
which student-athletes are most willing to seek help. Therefore, the purposes of this study were
to investigate predictors of mental health help-seeking as well as identify topics for which
college student-athletes are most likely to seek help. The sample consisted of participants (N =
325) from three Division II and III universities. Findings indicated public stigma was
significantly related to self-stigma, but social network stigma was not. Self-stigma was related to
attitudes and attitudes were related to intentions. Using logistic regression analysis, self-stigma
and attitudes were found to be significant predictors of help-seeking behavior. Specifically, both
were associated with an increased likelihood of having sought mental health services in the past.
Regarding help-seeking topics, drug problems, depression, and excessive alcohol use were the
highest rated issues for which student-athletes were likely to seek help, whereas concerns about
sexuality, difficulty with friends, and body image were rated the lowest. The results of this study
can be used to help sport psychologists and other mental health staff develop programming that
might lead to increased service use amongst collegiate student-athletes. Specifically, it appears
that using a multifaceted approach to improving attitudes could have the most meaningful effect
on encouraging service use.
iii
Acknowledgements
I have saved this section for last because I have struggled to find the words to thank the people in
my life who deserve to be in this section. The truth is that the words that are on this page will not
ultimately be enough, but I will give it my best shot.
My chair, Dr. Jack Watson II, is my obvious starting point. I cannot thank you enough for
deciding to take me in four years ago as your student. I have spoken with so many friends across
different universities who have had an advisor that has absolutely made or broken their
experience in graduate school, and I am lucky enough that I am on the made side. I cannot thank
you enough for the opportunities to be involved that you have given me, but also the incredible
mentorship that has gone outside of research. Throughout this dissertation process you have
inspired me to become a prolific reviewer who mandates everyone uses active voice by writing
in first person so that I can begin shifting paradigms. But on a serious note, thank you for the
stories, the support, and the confidence to get through this journey. I will be forever grateful.
Dr. Sam Zizzi, your influence on my development as a graduate student also cannot be
understated. In addition to the guidance up research mountain, your perspectives have constantly
challenged me to become a better scholar, practitioner, and person. I will always be thankful for
that.
Dr. Ed Etzel, you have been such an integral part of my experience at WVU. I am so thankful
that you agreed to be part of my committee despite retirement, but again, your role extends far
beyond the dissertation. Your continual kindness and compassion is what I will remember the
most and I can only hope to one day portray even a sliver of that sort of care with clients and
students.
Dr. Aaron Metzger, thank you so much for the guidance you have provided over the last year and
a half. You are getting a lot of us trickling over into your department and you were always so
willing to spend time helping me wade through the mass of confusion that can be statistics,
particularly SEM.
I also need to thank the rest of the WVU faculty. In some way, each one of you has impacted my
life positively and helped me challenge myself to grow. Your support has meant a lot to me and
allowed me to enjoy my experience on this path.
To all of the WVU program that I have crossed paths with over these four years, thank you. As
you all know, completing this journey is no easy task, and it would be substantially more
difficult without people around you that you enjoy being with. Thank you for accepting me as I
am and for the willingness to provide support whenever necessary.
iv
I also need to go further down the line with some thanks. Dr. Lindsey Blom and Dr. Robert
Batsell, I cannot thank you enough for the mentoring you provided me through my Master’s and
undergraduate degrees. Writing this dissertation was a whole lot easier because of the way you
challenged me to grow as a writer, and I am forever thankful for that.
To my family. Even though you still probably don’t quite understand exactly what I am in school
for, you instilled in me a love for education at an early age and always encouraged me to
continue finding involvement in things that interested me. Although this journey has continually
taken me further and further from home, you are always a part of me.
And finally, to my wife, Alisha. I suppose I owe Dr. Blom another acknowledgement of thanks
here for bringing us into the same office, but she already knows what she did ☺. Our PhD
journeys separated us for far too long, but even in that time, you were a constant source of
support and sanity. I can’t wait to start our real journey together, wherever that may take us.
v
Table of Contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 1
Stigma.......................................................................................................................................... 2
Help-Seeking Concerns ............................................................................................................... 4
The Current Study ....................................................................................................................... 6
Method ...................................................................................................................................................... 7
Participants .................................................................................................................................. 7
Measures...................................................................................................................................... 8
Social network stigma ............................................................................................................. 8
Public stigma. .......................................................................................................................... 9
Self-stigma. .............................................................................................................................. 9
Attitudes................................................................................................................................. 10
Intentions ............................................................................................................................... 10
Help-seeking topics ............................................................................................................... 11
Attention checks .................................................................................................................... 11
Demographics ........................................................................................................................ 12
Procedure ................................................................................................................................... 12
Data Analysis Plan .................................................................................................................... 12
Item parcels............................................................................................................................ 13
Results ..................................................................................................................................................... 14
Data Screening .......................................................................................................................... 14
Preliminary Analyses ................................................................................................................ 15
Relationships Between Stigma, Attitudes, and Intentions ........................................................ 15
Indirect effects. ...................................................................................................................... 16
Predicting Previous Help-Seeking ............................................................................................ 16
Help-Seeking Topics ................................................................................................................. 17
Discussion ............................................................................................................................................... 17
Help-Seeking Intentions and Behavior ..................................................................................... 18
Help-Seeking Topics ................................................................................................................. 22
Implications ............................................................................................................................... 24
Limitations and Future Research............................................................................................... 27
Conclusion .............................................................................................................................................. 29
References ............................................................................................................................................... 30
Appendix A: Figure and Tables............................................................................................................ 39
Figure 1: Structural model. .................................................................................................... 39
Table 1: Sport participation ................................................................................................... 40
Table 2: Correlations ............................................................................................................. 41
vi
Table 3: Measurement model ................................................................................................ 42
Table 4: Indirect effects ......................................................................................................... 43
Table 5: Logistic regression .................................................................................................. 44
Table 6: Help seeking topics ................................................................................................. 45
Appendix B: Extended Review of Literature ...................................................................................... 46
The College Population ............................................................................................................. 47
Stigma: An Important Construct Related to Attitudes Toward Help-Seeking .......................... 48
Media Influences on Public Stigma .......................................................................................... 51
Stigma and Help-Seeking Theories ........................................................................................... 53
Measurement of Stigma, Attitudes, and Intentions ................................................................... 55
Attitudes and Intentions to Seek Help in the General Population ............................................. 61
Stigma, Attitudes, and Intentions Toward Help-Seeking in the General Population ................ 65
Mental health interventions to reduce stigma in the general population. .................................. 75
Summary of Stigma and Help-Seeking in the General Population ........................................... 77
Student-Athlete Help-Seeking................................................................................................... 78
Mental Health Interventions ...................................................................................................... 80
Barriers to Help-Seeking for Student-Athletes ......................................................................... 84
Stigma and Attitudes Toward Help Seeking in Athletes........................................................... 87
Likelihood of Seeking Counseling for Specific Issues ............................................................. 93
Future Research ......................................................................................................................... 96
References ................................................................................................................................. 98
Appendix C: Perceptions of Stigmatization by Others for Seeking Help ...................................... 119
Appendix D: Stigma Scale for Receiving Psychological Help ....................................................... 120
Appendix E: Self Stigma of Seeking Help ........................................................................................ 121
Appendix F: Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Help Scale-Short Form .... 122
Appendix G: Mental Help Seeking Intention Scale ......................................................................... 123
Appendix H: Help-Seeking Topics .................................................................................................... 124
Appendix I: Demographics ................................................................................................................. 125
Appendix J: Post-hoc analyses for self-stigma ................................................................................. 126
Appendix K: IRB Approval .................................................................................................................... 127
Running head: STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS
1
Introduction
The recent suicide of a Washington State quarterback sent shockwaves throughout the
National Collegiate Athletics Association (NCAA). This is but one of many publicized incidents
of mental health issues amongst NCAA athletes, as it is a topic that has been increasing in public
awareness (e.g., Associated Press, 2018; Scott, 2018). Its importance is demonstrated through
the release of the NCAA Mental Health Best Practices guidelines (NCAA, 2016b) and NCAA
research grants that focus on mental health. One component of mental health that has often been
studied is stigma associated with seeking counseling services. Although many articles have been
devoted to studying stigma and help-seeking attitudes in the general population and even elite
athletes, college student-athletes have received significantly less attention. Some authors argue
that this population is unique in its needs because of the various cultural factors associated with
being a college student-athlete, and therefore are worthy of study (e.g., Etzel, Watson, Visek, &
Maniar, 2006; Pinkerton, Hinz, & Barrow, 1989). A myriad of reasons could contribute to the
increased need for mental health services amongst student-athletes, such as intense time demands
for their sport, highly regimented schedules, and pressures to be successful academically and
athletically (Jolly, 2008). Providing evidence for the spread of mental health concerns amongst
student-athletes, the results of a recent study at a single university found that mental health issues
had an influence on athletic performance in the previous month in 62.6% of the sample (Kern et
al., 2017). In a nationwide survey of student-athletes across multiple schools and divisions
conducted by the NCAA (2016a), 30% of student-athletes reported feeling overwhelmed in the
last month. Gavrilova and Donohue (2018) listed anxiety, depression, substance use, eating
disorders, stress, and relationship issues as the top concerns for student-athletes, which mirrors
the general college population (Pérez-Rojas et al., 2017). For example, 23.7% of collegiate
STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS
2
athletes reported clinically significant levels of depression in a recent study (Wolanin, Hong,
Marks, Panchoo, & Gross, 2016) and in another study at one university, 14% of the student
athletes reported having a mental health condition (Sarac, Sarac, Pedroza, & Borchers, 2018).
Despite the clear need for mental health services, several authors argue that student-athletes are
still underutilizing these services (e.g., López & Levy, 2013; Moreland, Coxe, & Yang, 2018). A
myriad of factors act as barriers to help-seeking for student-athletes. These include lack of time,
concerns about confidentiality and being identified in public, worry that clinicians will not
understand their lifestyle, and not recognizing the need to seek services (López & Levy, 2013;
Moore, 2017; Watson, 2006). In addition to these variables, there is one factor that shows up
repeatedly throughout the literature: stigma. As a result, it is likely that stigma plays a significant
role in predicting help-seeking intentions and behavior.
Stigma and Help-Seeking
Corrigan (2004) asserts that two primary types of stigma exist regarding help-seeking,
public and self-stigma. Public stigma is external and refers to a belief that society perceives
seeking help for mental health treatment as undesirable and individuals who seek help are
socially unacceptable. Self-stigma represents an internalization of public stigma in that an
individual believes he or she is socially undesirable for seeking treatment. A further delineation
of external stigma may also be helpful for understanding the roles that stigma may play in
influencing counseling attitudes. Social network stigma is a form of external stigma (Topkaya,
Vogel, & Brenner, 2017) that specifically refers to perceived stigma from individuals who are
directly within one’s social network (Vogel, Wade, & Ascheman, 2009). Social network stigma
is important because an individual may perceive the general public to hold one particular set of
beliefs regarding mental health treatment, but the individual might be most concerned about what
STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS
3
close family and acquaintances think. In one study of Turkish college students that measured
public and social network stigma, social network stigma was a unique predictor of self-stigma,
although the strength of the pathway was much weaker than for public stigma (Topkaya et al.,
2017). Further, there is extensive evidence that these forms of stigma influence attitudes and
intentions toward help-seeking in a variety of populations (e.g., Garriott, Raque-Bogdan,
Yalango, Schaefer Ziemer, & Utley, 2017).
Similarly, stigma is often identified as a barrier to seeking counseling services for college
student-athletes (e.g., López & Levy, 2013; Moore, 2017; Moreland et al., 2018). Participants in
qualitative studies using athletes across different levels have also reported stigma to be a
substantial impediment to seeking counseling services (e.g., Biggin, Burns, & Uphill, 2017;
DeLenardo & Lennox Terrion, 2014; Moore, 2017). One reason that stigma might be particularly
salient amongst collegiate athletes is the sociocultural aspect of sport, where masculine tenets
associated with the sport environment often de-emphasize the need for seeking help and perceive
individuals who do so as weak (Gucciardi, Hanton, & Fleming, 2017; Schinke, Stambulova, Si,
& Moore, 2018). Therefore, different forms of stigma, including social network stigma, self
stigma, and public stigma have all been associated with less favorable attitudes toward seeking
counseling (e.g., Bird, Chow, Meir, & Freeman, 2018; Hilliard, Redmond, & Watson, 2018;
Ramaeker & Petrie, 2019; Wahto, Swift, & Whipple, 2016).
Specifically, social network stigma was found to be associated with increased levels of
self-stigma and consequently less positive attitudes in NCAA Division I athletes (Bird, Chow, et
al. 2018), whereas public stigma was associated with greater self-stigma and lower attitudes with
student-athletes competing across multiple divisions (Hilliard et al., 2018; Wahto et al., 2016).
However, no studies have measured public and social network stigma in the same sample of
STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS
4
student-athletes. Additionally, very little is known about factors that influence intentions to seek
professional psychological help in student-athletes. Although attitudes are viewed as a proxy for
intentions and behavior (e.g., Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980) and researchers have found that attitudes
are related to actual help-seeking behaviors (ten Have et al., 2010), examining actual behaviors
would help to get a more accurate picture of student-athlete help-seeking. Recently, some
authors have investigated how depression and anxiety symptoms influence help-seeking
intentions (Tahtinen & Kristjansdottir, 2018) and actual behavior (Drew & Matthews, 2018). In
a recent study of male athletes, attitudes were significantly associated with intentions, although
this relationship only accounted for eight percent of the variance (Ramaeker & Petrie, 2019).
Additionally, conformity to masculine norms and stigma were indirectly related to intentions.
This initial study provides support for the role stigma and attitudes might play in determining
intentions. However, given the low variance accounting for intentions in this study, and the lack
of an analysis related to actual help-seeking behaviors, more research is needed in this area.
Help-Seeking Concerns
Research in the general psychology literature has found that specific groups might vary
on their willingness to seek counseling for various issues. There has been limited research on this
topic amongst student-athletes; however, there is some insight that can be gleaned from this
small body of research. One study examined preferences for concerns to discuss in sport
psychology consultation amongst athletes from the U.S. and Japan (Naoi, Watson, Deaner, &
Sato, 2011). This list included ten options related to performance enhancement as well as
various personal concerns. Overall, the top three issues were all performance related:
burnout/overtraining, confidence, and dealing with stress. Personal and mental health concerns
all ranked in the bottom. Although this makes student-athletes’ willingness to seek help for
STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS
5
personal concerns appear bleak, the participants were asked to respond to topics they would
prefer for sport psychology consultation. They may not have felt that discussing mental health
concerns or drug/alcohol issues would be appropriate with a sport psychology consultant, but
feel differently about doing so with a mental health professional. However, Moore (2017)
recently found of student-athletes that amongst a list of possible behavioral services such as
medical, tutoring, and mental health services, mental health related topics received the lowest
ratings of comfort. Comfort does not necessarily equate to willingness, as student-athletes are
required to meet with academic advisors and sports medicine professionals, so it is
understandable that comfort with those services would be higher. Further, when given an option,
student-athletes reported a greater willingness to seek help for personal issues from informal
sources such as coaches, friends, or family (e.g., Bird, Chow, et al., 2018; Naoi et al., 2011;
Maniar, Curry, Sommers-Flanagan, & Walsh, 2001). However, the research on specific
presenting concerns for which student-athletes might be interested in seeking counseling is
limited. Previous studies have either provided a limited number of sport-related concerns to rate
such as overcoming a slump, dealing with injury, or seeking optimal performance (Maniar et al.,
2001) or asked participants to rate topics to be discussed during sport psychology consultation
(Naoi et al., 2011). Further, research on presenting concerns of college students has found minor
differences between genders on why they seek counseling (Pérez-Rojas et al., 2017), but it is
unknown if preferences for topics differ between male and female athletes and there has been no
discussion of individuals who describe themselves as non-binary. This important line of inquiry
can have implications for college counseling centers and sport psychology professionals. Further
knowledge of the most and least salient presenting concerns can be used to promote appropriate
mental health services and tailor outreach efforts. For example, counseling centers could
STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS
6
specifically describe the ways they could help student-athletes with their highest rated concerns
and destigmatize lower rated concerns that might still be important issues to be addressed with
professional help.
The Current Study
Unlike the broader counseling psychology research investigating other populations, a
major limitation of the research with college student-athletes is the lack of studies examining
intentions and actual help-seeking behavior, especially when including stigma as a predicting
variable. Although researchers have often collected data on previous experience with mental
health services, that data has not been included in the analyses. Thus, analyzing the role of
stigma in direct relation to attitudes, intentions, and help-seeking behavior would expand
understanding of help-seeking factors among student-athletes. Social network stigma may play
an important role with student-athletes who have concerns over close others being aware of them
seeking counseling (e.g., López & Levy, 2013; Moore, 2017). The measures for public and
social network stigma have been found to be able to add unique variance in the prediction of
self-stigma. Therefore, understanding the amount of influence of public and social network
stigma on help-seeking could help practitioners tailor interventions and outreach to make more
student-athletes feel comfortable seeking mental health services. Further, preferred presenting
concerns for seeking help are vastly unexplored.
The primary aim of this study was to investigate the relationships between public stigma,
social network stigma, self-stigma, attitudes, and intentions to seek counseling in college
student-athletes. Additionally, the predictive validity of these variables on previous help-seeking
was investigated. A secondary aim of this study was to explore willingness to seek counseling
for specific topics.
STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS
7
One framework that can help guide the understanding of health behavior is the Theory of
Reasoned Action (TRA; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). In the TRA, Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) posit
that subjective norms and attitudes combine to form intentions to engage in a behavior, which for
the current study was seeking mental health services. Attitudes refer to an individual’s actual
beliefs whereas subjective norms refer to the beliefs an individual perceives others to hold.
Thus, public and social network stigma are measures that seem to adequately reflect components
of TRA.
Based on previous research, it was hypothesized that public stigma and social network
stigma would both be positively associated with self-stigma. Additionally, it was hypothesized
that the relationship between these two external forms of stigma with intentions would be
mediated through self-stigma and attitudes. Specifically, it was hypothesized that self-stigma
would be negatively associated with attitudes toward counseling, and attitudes would positively
relate to intentions to seek counseling. Further, it was hypothesized that all indirect effects in the
model would be significant. The current study also explored two different research questions.
The first question was: what variables predict if a student-athlete has previously sought mental
health services? The second research question was: what are the presenting concerns for which
male and female student-athletes are most willing to seek help?
Method
Participants
Participants (N = 328) from a convenience sample of three Division II or III universities
in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States completed surveys. These universities were
selected because they did not have sport psychologists on campus, which could influence
attitudes toward counseling. Additionally, Division II and III universities tend to have fewer
resources available for athletes. The sample was primarily male (n = 224, n = 101 female, 3 did
STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS
8
not report gender) and predominately from Division III (n = 245, n = 81 Division II, 2 did not
report). The student-athletes ranged in age from 18-24 (M = 19.53, SD = 1.29) and contained
freshman (n = 112), sophomore (n = 90), junior (n = 73), senior (n = 47), and graduate student (n
= 1) athletes. The student-athletes primarily identified as White/Caucasian (84%), followed by
Black/African American (7%), biracial (4%), Hispanic/Latino (3%), and less than 1% each of
Native American and Asian. Eleven sports were represented, including baseball, basketball,
cross country, football, golf, soccer, softball, swimming, track and field, volleyball, and
wrestling. Full data related to sport participation can be seen in Table 1. A majority of the sample
had no previous experience seeking mental health services (80% no, 19 % yes, 1% did not
respond), most had no previous experience with a sport psychology practitioner (88%= no, 10%
= yes, 1% did not respond), and only 2% were currently on psychiatric medications.
Measures
Social network stigma. Perceived stigma from others who are within one’s social
network was measured with the Perceptions of Stigmatization by Others for Seeking Help scale
(PSOSH; Vogel et al., 2009). Participants responded to five items based on a five-point Likert
type scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (a great deal). The items can be combined for a total
score or averaged together for a composite score. Higher scores represent greater perceived
stigmatization by others. The internal reliability across five samples including more than 2000
college students was adequate in the validation study (i.e., α = .78 to .89). A reliability of .88
was found in a sample of college student-athletes (Bird, Chow, et al., 2018). In the validation
study, the authors found that social network stigma predicted variance in self-stigma beyond
other public stigma measures and demonstrated test-retest reliability of r = .77 over three weeks
(Vogel et al., 2009). The scale provides the following instructions: “Imagine you had a personal
STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS
9
difficulty that you could not solve on your own. If you sought counseling services for this issue,
to what degree do you believe that the people you interact with would ___”. Following the
recommendations of Vogel et al. (2009) to specify the sample, I specified those with whom you
interact within the athletic context. A sample item is “think bad things of you.” Cronbach’s α =
.82 in this study’s sample. See Appendix C for the scale.
Public stigma. The Stigma Scale for Receiving Psychological Help (SSRPH; Komiya,
Good, & Sherrod, 2000) was used to measure public stigma. This is a five-item scale with
anchors ranging from 0 (strongly disagree) to 3 (strongly agree). Higher scores represent more
perceived public stigma. A sample item is “seeing a psychologist for emotional or interpersonal
problems carries social stigma.” In the validation study of 311 undergraduate students, the scale
demonstrated adequate reliability (α = .72). Other samples using the scale have also found
adequate validity above .70 (e.g., Topkaya et al., 2017; Vogel et al., 2009), including .81 in a
sample of college student-athletes (Wahto et al., 2016). Komiya et al. (2000) found that a one
factor solution fit best and the scale correlated negatively with help-seeking attitudes. In the
current study, Cronbach’s α = .64. See Appendix D for the scale.
Self-stigma. Self-stigma for seeking treatment was measured using the Self-Stigma of
Seeking Help scale (SSOSH; Vogel, Wade, & Haake, 2006). This is a 10-item scale containing
five reverse-scored items that is measured on a five-point Likert-scale ranging from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). A sample question is “I would feel worse about myself if I could
not solve my own problems.” After reverse scoring, higher scores reflect greater levels of self
stigma for seeking help. Vogel et al. (2006) validated the scale in several samples of college
students, which included more than 1000 participants. The internal consistency across those
samples was good (i.e., α = .86 to .91). Additionally, factor analyses confirmed a
STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS
10
unidimensional structure. Self-stigma predicted counseling attitudes and intentions to seek help
above other variables known to influence attitudes and was found to have a two-month test-retest
reliability of r = .72. Similar stable psychometric properties have been found in samples of
college student-athletes (e.g., Bird, Chow, et al., 2018; Ramaeker & Petrie, 2019). Cronbach’s α
= .83 in the current study. See Appendix E for the scale.
Attitudes. Attitudes toward seeking counseling was measured using the Attitudes
Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Help-Short Form (ATSPPH-SF; Fischer & Farina,
1995). This scale is a shortened version of the original scale. This short version correlated
highly with the full version in the initial validation study, r = .87. This scale contains ten items
on a Likert-type scale ranging from 0 (disagree) to 3 (agree). Five of the items are reversed
scored. After reverse scoring, higher scores indicate more positive attitudes toward counseling.
A sample item is “I would want to get psychological help if I were worried or upset for a long
period of time.” The scale had a one-month test-rest reliability of r = .80 and had an internal
consistency of α = .84, similar to the internal consistency in samples of college athletes
(Ramaeker & Petrie, 2019). Cronbach’s α = .78 in this study. See Appendix F for the scale.
Intentions. The Mental Help-Seeking Intention Scale (MHSIS; Hammer & Spiker, 2018)
was used to measure one’s intentions to seek counseling. The scale was created using a guide on
developing Theory of Planned Behavior related instruments, which is an extension of TRA. The
MHSIS is a three-item measure that examines intentions using a 7-point Likert-type scale that
ranges from 1 to 7. Each of the three questions has different anchors (e.g., extremely unlikely to
extremely likely). The three items are averaged together and a higher score represents greater
intentions to seek counseling. This three-item version created by Hammer and Spiker was found
to be unidimensional and had the greatest predictive validity compared with two other commonly
STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS
11
used intentions measures. The scale had an internal consistency of α = .94 in the validating study
of 405 adults, which was similar to the α = .95 in this study. See Appendix G for the scale.
Help-seeking topics. Presenting concerns that student-athletes would be most willing to
seek help for were measured using a modified version of the Intentions to Seek Counseling
Inventory (ISCI; Cash, Begley, McCown, & Weise, 1975). The original ISCI is a 17-item
measure that contains three subscales: academic concerns, psychological and interpersonal
concerns, and drug use concerns (Cepeda-Benito & Short, 1998). The four-point Likert-type
scale ranges from 1 (very unlikely) to 4 (very likely). Some sample items for which participants
indicate they might seek help include loneliness, drug problems, and depression. However, the
list omits items that might be relevant to the student-athlete population (e.g., athletic
performance). Additionally, some of the language was outdated and might not relate to
contemporary college students. Therefore, after conducting a literature search and receiving
feedback from licensed psychologists with experience working with collegiate students and
student-athletes, some items were modified to reflect recent reports of prominent presenting
problems in college counseling centers (Pérez-Rojas et al., 2017) and additional items were
added that would be relevant to athletes (e.g., Gavrilova & Donohue, 2018). The final scale
contained 20 items. Higher scores indicate a greater willingness to seek help. In this study,
Cronbach’s α = .87. See Appendix H for the scale.
Attention checks. To reduce the possibility of getting a response set from participants,
one attention check question was interspersed throughout the questions as well as a brief
distraction scale. Because survey packets were counterbalanced, two separate forms of attention
checks were used depending on their place in the packet. One was “please write in the number
for ‘a lot’ (4) to answer this question” and the other was “please circle 2 in response to this
STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS
12
question.” The social identity subscale of the Athletic Identity Measurement Scale (Brewer &
Cornelius, 2001) was used as the distractor scale. This is a three-item measure that examines the
strength that athletes identify with social aspects of that role. These items include “I consider
myself an athlete”, “I have many goals related to sports”, and “most of my friends are athletes.”
Demographics. The participants also responded to several demographic questions to
provide basic background information. Some of the topics included sport, previous mental
health treatment experience, and division of participation. See Appendix I for the questions.
Procedure
After receiving university IRB approval (Appendix K), the researcher contacted coaches
at three universities. If the coach agreed to participate in the study, the researcher met with the
team at a convenient time and place to administer the counterbalanced survey packet in person.
No coaches or athletic staff were present during data collection. Following data collection, the
researcher debriefed participants and they were released. Participants were not compensated and
all provided consent. In total, the researcher contacted 26 coaches to participate, and 13 granted
permission.
Data Analysis Plan
A power analysis was conducted prior to collecting data using Soper’s (2013) online
calculator for structural equation modeling (SEM). Given the number of latent and observed
variables in this study, with a power level of 0.80 and a probability level of .05, the minimum
sample size was 268. Therefore, the sample of 312 used for SEM in this study was perceived to
be sufficient. To test the hypotheses, AMOS 25.0 (Arbuckle, 2017) was used to examine the
data. A two-step model was followed wherein the measurement model was first examined,
followed by the structural model (Kline, 2016). This hypothesized model was also compared
STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS
13
with a plausible alternative model. Finally, mediation through indirect effects via bootstrapping
was used to compute bias-corrected percentile confidence intervals, which can be used in cases
of multivariate nonnormality (Preacher & Hayes, 2008; Shrout & Bulger, 2002). SEM was used
to test the three hypotheses that public and social network stigma will be associated with self
stigma, that the relationship of these two stigmas with intentions will be mediated through self
stigma and attitudes, and finally that self-stigma will negatively relate to attitudes and attitudes
will positively relate to intentions. The goodness-of-fit for the models was assessed using the
comparative fit index (CFI), incremental fit index (IFI), root mean square error of approximation
(RMSEA), and the standardized root mean residual (SRMR). The guidelines put forth by Hu and
Bentler (1999) for good fit were utilized: CFI and IFI ≥ .95, RMSEA ≤ .06, and SRMR ≤ .08.
To answer the first research question, a logistic regression was used to test the predictive
validity of the variables on previous help-seeking experience. Gender was entered in the first
step because it is known to relate to help-seeking, and all three forms of stigma, attitudes, and
intentions were entered in step two. Finally, to answer the second research question related to
help-seeking topics, descriptive statistics and frequencies were calculated using SPSS. The alpha
level for all analyses was set at .05.
Item parcels. All scales used in the structural model were unidimensional, which
eliminated the possibility of using subscales to represent the latent variable. Thus, to reduce the
total number of parameters and improve model fit, parcels were created to represent each latent
variable following steps outlined by Russell, Kahn, Spoth, and Altmaier (1998). The scales for
public stigma and social network stigma both contained five items, so two parcels were created
for each. The scales for self-stigma and attitudes each contained ten items and were given three
parcels. Because the intentions scale was only three items, each item was used to represent the
STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS
14
latent variable. To create necessary parcels, an exploratory factor analysis fit to a one-factor
solution was run for the required measures. The factor loadings were balanced on parcels in a
way that each parcel would be approximately equal. This was done by alternating highest and
lowest loadings on each parcel (Russell et al., 1998).
Results
Data Screening
Initially, 334 surveys were returned out of a possible 336 participants. Six failed the
attention check and were subsequently deleted (Spiker & Hammer, 2018). These 328 participants
were eligible for the secondary analysis regarding help-seeking topics. This analysis did not rely
on statistical assumptions and only required responses to each of the individual items. However,
for the main analysis, further cleaning was required. Six additional participants were deleted
because they did not complete at least one entire scale, not including the MHSIS. Parent (2013)
and Garriot et al. (2017) recommend deleting participants who complete less than 80% of a
scale. Parent (2013) further recommended deletion if the overall sample was going to be
negligible and under 5%. The participants deleted from the current study did not complete any of
the items on a particular scale, falling well under the 80% range. Additionally, Hammer and
Spiker (2018) state that a mean should not be calculated for individuals who do not complete all
three items on the MHSIS, which resulted in eight deletions. This left 314 participants to
examine missingness and statistical assumptions. Overall, there were 16 missing values out of a
total of 10,362 values. Percentage of missingness ranged from 0.3-1.3%. Due to such low
missingness, values were replaced using expectation maximization (Schlomer, Bauman, & Card,
2010).
Next, steps outlined by Tabachnick and Fidell (2013) were followed for examining
outliers and assumptions. All variables appeared to be normally distributed, although the
STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS
15
skewness ratio for social network stigma exceeded 3.29, suggesting possible nonnormality
(Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013). However, according to Byrne (2016), extreme kurtosis is more
concerning for SEM, and the skewness values were not above the threshold indicating
problematic nonnormality. As a result, to ease interpretation, the variable was left untransformed.
There was one univariate outlier with a z-score above 3.29 that was deleted, and one multivariate
outlier with a Mahalanobis distance value exceeding the critical value for the degrees of freedom
in this study, and was subsequently deleted. This meant that 312 participants were included in
the SEM and logistic regression analyses. The data met all other multivariate assumptions. The
last step was to check for multivariate normality, and Mardia’s coefficient was 9.46, suggesting
mild multivariate nonnormality (Byrne, 2016).
Preliminary Analyses
Means, standard deviations, and correlations were examined between the variables
included in the SEM and logistic regression analyses. These values can be seen in Table 2. The
correlations between all variables were significant and in the expected direction. The strongest
relationship was between attitudes and intentions, r = .61, p < .001, and the weakest was between
social network stigma and intentions, r = -.12, p = .04.
Relationships Between Stigma, Attitudes, and Intentions
The measurement model provided good fit to the data, χ2(55, N = 312) = 109.19, p < .01,
CFI = .98, RMSEA = .05 [90% CI = .04, .07], IFI = .98, SRMR = .04. All items loaded
significantly on their observed factors, with loadings ranging from β = .56 to .97. Table 3
displays the full values from the measurement model. Overall, the goodness-of-fit and the
loadings suggested that the latent variables were adequately measured.
STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS
16
The structural model was examined next. The researcher first tested the hypothesized
model with public and social network stigma as exogenous variables whose relationship with
intentions was mediated through self-stigma and attitudes. This model demonstrated good fit to
the data, χ2(60, N = 312) = 119.75, p < .01, CFI = .98, RMSEA = .06 [90% CI = .04, .07], IFI =
.98, SRMR = .05. This model accounted for 47% of the variance in self-stigma, 41% of the
variance in attitudes, and 50% of the variance in intentions. This model can be seen in Figure 1.
Of note, all hypothesized pathways were significant, except for the one between social network
stigma and self-stigma (β = -.02, p = .83).
Next, a plausible alternative model (Kline, 2016) was tested, where public and social
network stigma each had a direct path to intentions. This partially mediated model also
demonstrated good fit, χ2(58, N = 312) = 118.34, p < .01, CFI = .98, RMSEA = .06 [90% CI =
.04, .07], IFI = .98, SRMR = .05. The original pathways all remained significant, but the two
new direct pathways from public and social network stigma to intentions were not significant. A
test to compare the two models found that they fit the data equally, χ2(2, N = 312) = 1.41, p =
.49. Given that the additional pathways were not significant, the original, smaller parsimonious
model was utilized to test indirect effects.
Indirect effects. To calculate indirect effects, 5000 bias-corrected bootstrap samples
were requested using AMOS. As shown in Table 4, all indirect effects in the model were
significant with the exception of any pathways that included social network stigma. In addition
to the AMOS output for significance, the 95% confidence intervals for the pathways deemed
significant did not contain zero, confirming that they are significant (Shrout & Bulger, 2002).
Predicting Previous Help-Seeking
STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS
17
To answer the first research question, the researcher conducted a binary logistic
regression using the measured variables as predictors of previous help-seeking history. An
additional assumption for logistic regression includes testing the linearity of the logit, and this
assumption was met. Results from this regression analysis are seen in Table 5. The model was
not significant after only including gender in step one, but the full model was significant, χ2(6, N
= 310) = 28.19, p < .001. The Hosmer-Lemeshow test for this model indicated good fit, χ2(8) =
5.63, p = .69. As seen in the table, self-stigma (Expβ = 2.28, p = .01) and attitudes (Expβ = 3.76,
p = .001) significantly predicted previous mental health service use. These odds ratios both
suggest that as the individual scored higher in self-stigma or attitudes, they were more likely to
have previously sought mental health services.
Help-Seeking Topics
To answer the second research question, the researcher compiled means and standard
deviations for each variable on the ISCI. Overall, drug problems, depression, and excessive
alcohol use were the highest rated issues for which student-athletes were likely to seek help. The
lowest rated topics were concerns about sexuality, difficulty with friends, and body image. When
split by gender, the results remained primarily the same. For women, the highest ranked topics
were anxiety, depression, and drug problems, whereas the lowest ranked were concerns about
sexuality, difficulty with friends, and difficulty with sleeping. For men, the highest and lowest
rated topics were identical to the overall sample, although the order varied for the lowest ranked.
Body image was the second lowest ranked topic, followed by difficulty with friends at third. The
results for all 20 items on this scale can be seen in Table 6.
Discussion
STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS
18
The purpose of the current study was to explore the role of various stigmas on intentions
to seek counseling and how these factors were associated with previous help-seeking experience.
An additional aim of this study was to determine which topics student-athletes are most and least
willing to seek help for professionally. The researcher hypothesized that public stigma and social
network stigma would be positively associated with self-stigma. In turn, self-stigma would be
negatively associated with attitudes toward counseling, and attitudes would then be positively
associated with intentions to seek counseling. Further, it was hypothesized that all indirect
effects would be significant. There were no hypotheses for the research questions. Overall, the
hypotheses were mostly supported.
Help-Seeking Intentions and Behavior
Previous researchers have identified stigma as having a strong association with attitudes
toward help-seeking in college athletes (Bird, Chow, et al., 2018; Wahto et al., 2016).
Specifically, public stigma, social network stigma, and self-stigma have all been linked with
counseling attitudes, with self-stigma having the strongest link (Bird, Chow, et al., 2018; Hilliard
et al., 2018; Wahto et al., 2016). In the current study, social network stigma was not
significantly associated with self-stigma. The overall low scores and restricted range of
responses of social network stigma may have contributed to its lack of significance.
Alternatively, it is possible that contemporary athletes receive more positive messages from
teammates and coaches related to mental health help-seeking than in the past and thus these
beliefs are not being internalized in the form of self-stigma. However, public stigma, self
stigma, and attitudes were related to intentions. This aligns with the findings of a recent study of
male college student-athletes, where self-stigma and attitudes were associated with intentions
(Ramaeker & Petrie, 2019). This suggests that those with more positive attitudes toward seeking
STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS
19
help will also endorse greater intentions to seek mental health counseling if necessary. When
comparing the overall levels of stigma and attitudes to other studies of student-athletes, there are
minimal differences (Bird, Chow, et al., 2018; Hilliard et al., 2018; Wahto et al., 2016). The
largest difference between means on a measure was 0.21 for public stigma on a 5-point scale
(Hilliard et al., 2018). Thus, when interpreting these results within the broader literature, the
current sample does not appear to be different from other study populations.
These findings support the assertions of the TRA (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980) that more
positive attitudes toward a health behavior will result in increased intentions of engaging in that
behavior. Subjective norms is another component of the TRA and was measured via public
stigma. Public stigma contributed to inform intentions, as seen through the indirect relationship
between public stigma and intentions through mediating pathways, including self-stigma, an
important variable related to attitudes. The importance of these variables in this theoretical
construct was further established when examining predictors of previous help-seeking behavior.
Similar to the structural model, more positive attitudes were indicative of the greatest increase in
likelihood that an individual had previously sought mental health services. Attitudes have
previously been associated with actual service use (ten Have et al., 2010), and in this sample they
were the strongest predictor of previous help seeking. This finding is slightly inconsistent with
the TRA, where the most proximal measure of behavior (i.e., intentions) should be the strongest
predictor.
Additionally, there was a strong correlation between attitudes and intentions present in
the study. Given this information, future researchers may want to examine the utility of
intentions over and above attitudes for examining student-athlete help-seeking behavior. One
possibility for why attitudes may have been more important than intentions may be the
STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS
20
unpredictability associated with intentions. Half of the variance in intentions was accounted for
in this study. In the only other study of student-athletes to measure intentions in line with this
framework, 38% of the variance in attitudes was accounted for, but only 8% for intentions
(Ramaeker & Petrie, 2019). Part of this low variance may be due to the measure of intentions
that was used by Ramaeker and Petrie, which is arguably not a good measure of actual help
seeking intentions (Hammer & Spiker, 2018). It is difficult for an individual to predict how one
might act in a certain situation, which is what intention measures ask participants to do. Given
the low number of individuals who were currently seeking help and the scores on the various
measures, it appears that the sample in the current study was at fairly low risk. This may have
contributed to ambivalent intentions scores. Attitudinal measures, on the other hand, probe what
the participant currently believes. This is not to say that intentions measures have no use in
examining help-seeking behavior, as multiple meta-analyses have found that they are relatively
accurate predictors of behavior (e.g., Armitage & Conner, 2001; Sheppard, Hartwick, &
Warshaw, 1988). In fact, in a recent sample of college students, intention was found to predict
previous mental health service use, although attitudes were not included in the logistic regression
so a comparison could not be made (Li, Denson, & Dorstyn, 2018). In their study, the odds ratio
for intentions varied between 1.03-1.04 across various blocks, indicating a fairly weak influence.
However, the decision to seek help is often not a fully rational or linear process, and therefore
intentions may not always be a strong predictor future behavior. Thus, future research using
variables to measure the full TRA model and using the MHSIS as the intentions measure would
clarify the relationship between intentions and help-seeking behavior.
An unusual finding in this study was that self-stigma was associated with an increased
likelihood of having sought services in the past. This is a novel finding that contrasts previous
STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS
21
studies of help-seeking. It is unknown why this occurred in the present sample, but there are a
few potential statistical and practical explanations for this relationship. Levels of self-stigma did
not vary between groups of individuals who had or had not previously sought counseling and
there was no correlation between self-stigma and previous help-seeking. Further, in post-hoc
logistic regressions to explore this finding, self-stigma was only a significant predictor when
coupled with attitudes (See Appendix J). Thus, it is possible that attitudes were having a
statistical influence on self-stigma and this finding was an anomaly. However, this finding
supports the assertions of Schomerus and Angermeyer (2008) that the relationship between
attitudes, self-stigma, and help-seeking behavior might not be as clear as previously believed.
Regardless, further research is needed to corroborate this result.
Practically, one possible explanation is that self-stigma was developed as a response to
seeking treatment. No research was located that temporally examined the development of self
stigma, and it is possible that negative experiences with a counselor led to increased levels of
self-stigma. A second plausible explanation is that the levels of self-stigma was overpowered by
other needs of the individuals. Previous researchers have found that individuals who recognize
they have a mental health issue or concern are more likely to endorse greater levels of self
stigma (e.g., Corrigan & Watson, 2002; Jones, Keeling, Thandi, & Greenberg, 2015). Further,
some individuals reject the meaning of the self-stigma, even if they possess it (Corrigan &
Watson, 2002). Therefore, it is possible that the student-athletes in the current study who had
previously sought mental health services were aware of their concerns, which led to increased
levels of self-stigma. However, as student-athletes, they might have also recognized that their
mental health influences their performance. A previous study has confirmed this as one reason
why student-athletes sought mental health services (Bird, Chow, & Cooper, 2018). With the
STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS
22
desire to be as healthy as possible to compete at their highest level, their athletic identity or
competitive desires may have played a more prominent role in the decision to seek help, negating
the negative effects of self-stigma. However, this is currently speculation. Future examination of
the temporal associations of self-stigma and other help-seeking related variables would clarify
this relationship.
Help-Seeking Topics
The second research question was designed to assess the topics for which student-athletes
report being most willing to seek help, ranking them from most to least likely. The results
indicated that overall, student-athletes would be most likely to seek help for drug problems,
depression, and excessive alcohol use and least likely to seek help for concerns regarding
sexuality, difficulties with friends, and body image. These results were similar across gender as
well, except that anxiety was rated as highest for women, eliminating excessive alcohol use, and
difficulty sleeping was the lowest rated, eliminating body image concerns.
These results fall in stark contrast to the preferences of the student-athletes in Naoi et al.
(2011). In their study, mental health concerns and alcohol and drug issues ranked ninth and tenth,
respectively, out of a list of ten items. However, the differences in methodology explain this
inconsistency. The participants in Naoi et al. (2011) were asked to rate preferences for topics
when meeting with a sport psychology consultant. In the current study, participants responded to
a list of topics for which people often seek counseling. Therefore, it was apparent that these
issues would be discussed with a mental health professional and not a sport psychology
consultant. This aligns with previous research that has found that student-athletes display
preferences for professionals based on match regarding their particular concern (Maniar et al.,
2001). Thus, it makes sense that the student-athletes reported high levels of willingness to seek
STIGMA AND COUNSELING INTENTIONS
23
help for drug and alcohol use and depression with a counselor, but did not prefer to discuss these
issues with a sport psychology consultant (Naoi et al., 2011). Interestingly, seeking counseling
for athletic performance was rated fairly low in this sample, which further indicates that the
match with the professional might be an important indicator of their intentions to seek help for a
particular issue.
The issues rated most highly in this study have also been identified as important mental
health concerns that student-athletes face (Gavrilova & Donohue, 2018). These findings also
broadly mirror the results from a large-scale study of presenting concerns in college counseling
centers, where the top three concerns for athletes were anxiety, stress, and depression (Pérez
Rojas et al., 2017). However, alcohol and drug use was not included in their ranking system, so it
is not known how many athletes presented with those concerns. Nevertheless, the high
willingness to seek help for drug or alcohol issues is a promising step forward, as these are often
deeply stigmatized issues. One possible explanation for the high rankings for these topics could
be that the majority of the sample came from a Christian affiliated school with a strict drug and
alcohol use policy. This environmental factor may have led to a greater willingness to seek help
for those particular topics. Comparisons between the help-seeking topics scale and other student
athlete populations cannot be made.
Equally important to the highest rated topics are those that were ranked low amongst the
athlete group. Although student-athletes could benefit fro
Yo, I Like Your Walk-Up Song": Music Integration in Professional Baseball Gamedays : "Yo, I Like Your Walk-Up Song": Music Integration in Professional
Baseball Gamedays
Seth Swary
sds0021@mix.wvu.edu
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Part of the Applied Behavior Analysis Commons, and the Sports Studies Commons
Recommended Citation
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(2020). Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports. 7677.
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Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports
2020
"Yo, I Like Your Walk-Up Song": Music Integration in Professional
Baseball Gamedays
"Yo, I Like Your Walk-Up Song": Music Integration in Professional
Baseball Gamedays
Seth Swary
Follow this and additional works at: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd
Part of the Applied Behavior Analysis Commons, and the Sports Studies Commons
“Yo, I Like Your Walk-Up Song”: Music Integration in Professional Baseball Gamedays
Seth Swary, MA
Dissertation submitted to the College of Physical Activity
and Sport Sciences at West Virginia University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in
Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology
Sam Zizzi, Ed.D., Co-Chair
Jack Watson II, Ph.D., Co-Chair
Jesse Michel, Ph.D.
Ashley Coker-Cranney, Ph.D.
Ed Jacobs, Ph.D.
College of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences
Department of Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology
Morgantown, West Virginia
July 2020
Keywords: sport psychology, emotion regulation, baseball, sport performance,
performance enhancement, qualitative
Copyright 2020 Seth D. Swary
Abstract
“Yo, I Like Your Walk-Up Song”: Music Integration in Professional Baseball Gamedays
Seth Swary, MA
During competition, athletes are consistently regulating their own emotions (Friesen et al.,
2013a) and the emotions of their teammates (Tamminen et al., 2016). Athletes have identified
music as a strategy used for both intrapersonal (Lane, Davis, & Devonport, 2011) and
interpersonal emotion regulation (Friesen et al., 2015), while also using music for
association/dissociation, enhancing performance, facilitating flow, and improving their
qualitative experiences (Gabana et al., 2019). Though theories have been proposed on athletes’
individual (Bishop, Karageorghis, & Loizou, 2007) and group music use (Karageorghis et al.,
2018), they are yet to be widely applied to other sports. Further examination is thus still needed
to better understand the group-level uses of music and the lived experiences of athletes listening
to music, and to further develop theories. Researchers in the present study utilized a descriptive
phenomenological psychological method (Giorgi, Giorgi, & Morley, 2017), interviewing nine
professional baseball players on how they experience music on a gameday. Results are divided
into sections focusing on individual, team, and stadium listening, then compared to theories on
emotion regulation (Campo et al., 2017; Gross, 1998), music in sport (Bishop, Karageorghis, &
Loizou, 2007; Karageorghis et al., 2018), and relevant theories in the field of sport psychology
(e.g., Martin, Moritz, & Hall, 1999). Implications for athletes, coaches, sport psychology
professionals, and professional baseball organizations are discussed.
BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION
iii
Acknowledgements
I quickly realized this section would be the hardest to write of the document as I fear that it will
never be good enough to capture my gratitude for all of those who have helped me along the
way. This document is a culmination of a journey that has taken me across the country and
united me with people from around the world, and I am incredibly thankful for everyone along
the journey. Here goes nothing…
To my family – though you may not understand what I do or why, you have loved me and
supported me nonetheless. Thank you!
To those I met at OWU – thank you for showing me a new way to look at the world and helping
me to grow as a person.
To those I met in Denver – thank you for setting me on a path in this field, giving me the tools to
succeed, and for believing in me. All of the faculty and friends at DU, and friends from Parks &
Rec, thank you for giving me a new home.
To those I met in West Virginia – I never thought I would say that! Thank you to all of the
faculty, staff, and friends I have met over the past 4 years. I have grown more than I thought I
ever would both professionally and personally. My time in WV brought me close friendships,
two kitties, and an engagement. Thank you!
To my colleagues at Oakland University – thank you for believing in me before I even finished
my degree, and thanks for hiring me!
For those involved in this project – Dr. Watson, thank you for always challenging me and
pushing me. Dr. Jacobs, thank you for always believing in me and supporting me. Dr. Michel,
thank you for encouraging me to think beyond the walk-up song and giving invaluable support
along the way. Dr. Coker-Cranney, thank you for being a qualitative methods guru and giving
me the knowledge and support to do this study well. And Dr. Zizzi, thank you for guiding (and
putting up with!) me through these past few years. Thank you to my research team (Tommy,
Kate, & Erika) for being so willing to help and providing thoughts and insights that have made
this project so much better. Last, but not least, my honorary committee member, Dr. Zenzi
Huysmans, whose support and feedback are more appreciated than I could ever say.
Finally, to Lauren, Louise, and Bellamy – the aforementioned kitties and engagement, you are
my why. You make me want to be a better person every day, and I am able to continue growing
and pursuing my dreams because I have you with me. Thank you, and I love you!
All of this is to say, though I still don’t know much, the one thing I know is that I am loved.
“When you are loved, you can do anything in creation. When you are loved, there’s no need at
all to understand what’s happening, because everything happens within you.” -Paulo Coelho, The Alchemist
BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION iv
Table of Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1
Emotion Regulation in Sport ............................................................................................ 1
Music for Emotion Regulation in Sport .......................................................................... 3
Purpose ............................................................................................................................... 5
Methods .......................................................................................................................................... 5
Research Design and Sampling Approach ...................................................................... 6
Philosophical Assumptions ............................................................................................... 6
Procedures .......................................................................................................................... 6
Data Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 8
Research Quality and Rigor ........................................................................................... 10
Results ........................................................................................................................................... 11
Individual Listening ........................................................................................................ 11
Team Listening ................................................................................................................ 16
Stadium ............................................................................................................................. 20
Discussion ..................................................................................................................................... 26
Music Selection and Use .................................................................................................. 26
Music for Emotion Regulation ....................................................................................... 29
Music and Sport Psychology ........................................................................................... 29
Practical Implications ..................................................................................................... 30
Limitations and Future Directions ................................................................................. 31
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 32
References .................................................................................................................................... 33
Appendix A: Figures .................................................................................................................... 38
Appendix B: Descriptive Phenomenological Psychological Method .......................................... 40
Appendix C: Email/Message Templates ...................................................................................... 42
Appendix D: Interview Probe Questions ...................................................................................... 44
Appendix E: Participant Demographics Table ............................................................................. 45
Appendix F: Self-Reflexive Statement ........................................................................................ 46
Appendix G: Analytic Memos ..................................................................................................... 49
Appendix H: Extended Review of Literature ............................................................................... 63
Emotional Intelligence in Sport ...................................................................................... 64
Emotion Regulation in Sport .......................................................................................... 71
BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION v
Intrapersonal emotion regulation .................................................................................. 73
Interpersonal emotion regulation .................................................................................. 83
Music in Sport .................................................................................................................. 91
Conclusion and Future Recommendations ................................................................. 108
Extended References ..................................................................................................... 110
BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION
1
“Yo, I Like Your Walk-Up Song”: Music Integration in Professional Baseball Gamedays
Introduction
Emotions are a prevalent aspect of the sport experience as athletes prepare themselves for
practice and competition, and to cope with the stress associated with pressures to perform.
Athletes, then, are constantly experiencing various emotions and engaging in strategies to
regulate their own emotions (Lane, Davis, & Devonport, 2011) and those of their teammates
(Friesen et al., 2013b). One’s ability to recognize and understand emotions, express emotions,
and regulate emotions is also referred to as emotional intelligence (EI; Mayer & Salovey, 1997).
Athletes with higher scores on measurements of EI report more pleasant emotions prior to
competition (Lane et al., 2010) and use psychological skills more frequently (see Laborde,
Dosseville, & Allen, 2016 for a review). In regard to objective measures of athletic performance,
research indicated that EI has a moderate influence (7-23%) on pitching performance (Zizzi,
Deaner, & Hirschorn, 2003), total games played by professional hockey players (Perlini &
Halverson, 2006), and cricket team performance (Crombie, Lombard, & Noakes, 2009).
Emotion Regulation in Sport
Emotion regulation, one aspect of emotional intelligence, has hedonic (i.e., increase
pleasant emotions/decrease unpleasant emotions) and instrumental (i.e., facilitate the pursuit of a
goal) functions (Tamir, Mitchell, & Gross, 2008). Instrumental emotion regulation may be
particularly relevant to sport performance given the individualized relationship between
emotions and performance, as conceptualized in the Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning
model (IZOF; Hanin, 2000). IZOF posits that athletes regulate emotions to facilitate successful
performance more so than to maximize pleasant moods. In a recent study examining the
instrumental emotion regulation strategies of athletes, Lane and colleagues (2011) found that
BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION
2
athletes’ choices about increasing anger and/or anxiety was influenced by their meta-beliefs
about the impact of emotions on performance. Additionally, the use of effective emotion
regulation strategies led to winning 54-100% of the following points in a small study of table
tennis players (χ2=3.99-37.59; Martinent et al., 2015) and helped to prevent choking under
pressure in a putting task regardless of arousal level (η2=0.41; Balk et al., 2013). While emotion
regulation has been a common topic in the field of sport, exercise, and performance psychology
(SEPP) in recent years, most researchers have focused on intrapersonal regulation (i.e.,
regulating own emotions; see Campo et al., 2017). A recent shift in the literature has occurred,
however, in which researchers have recognized the impact of social and interpersonal processes,
such as talking to teammates and communal coping, on emotion regulation (Friesen et al., 2013a;
2013b; 2015; Tamminen & Crocker, 2013; Tamminen et al., 2016).
The process model of emotion regulation (PMER; Gross, 1998) has been commonly used
in other areas of psychology but has received less attention in the context of sports (Campo et al.,
2017). According to the model, individuals are proposed to regulate emotions through situation
selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive change, and/or response
modulation. The first four of these five “families” of emotion regulation strategies are considered
antecedent-focused, in that they take place in preparation for the emotional response, while the
last family is response-focused, occurring after the emotional response to alter specific emotions
being experienced (Gross, 1998). In a recent two-part study on rugby players’ use of emotion
regulation strategies, Campo and colleagues (2017) found support for each of the five families
proposed in the process model. Additionally, within each of the families, strategies were further
divided into self-regulation and interpersonal regulation, which can again be separated into co
regulation and extrinsic regulation. An examination of participants’ motives for regulating
BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION
3
emotion were revealed to be egoistic (for personal benefit), altruistic (for the benefit of a
teammate), or both. These results, along with findings from Friesen et al. (2013a) that athletes’
personal emotions informed their decision-making, emphasize the importance of the individual’s
own emotional states and meta-beliefs on his/her decisions about regulating the emotions of
teammates. One strategy cited by athletes in the study that fits within several families in the
PMER was music listening.
Music for Emotion Regulation in Sport
Athletes report commonly experiencing prevalent emotional reactions to music (Laukka
& Quick, 2011), and researchers in sport psychology have already identified music as an
effective intrapersonal (Bishop, Karageorghis, & Loizou, 2007; Elliott, Polman, & Taylor, 2014;
Lane, Davis, & Devonport, 2011) and interpersonal emotion regulation strategy (Friesen et al.,
2015). In a recent study by Middleton, Ruiz, and Robazza (2017), a 5-week intervention tying
music selection with psychoeducation about the IZOF model (Hanin, 2000) helped to improve
swimmers’ perceived ability to regulate their preperformance states and had a positive impact on
the perceived effectiveness of their preperformance routines. Further, Gabana and colleagues
(2019) found that professional golfers use music as an associative and dissociative mechanism,
as well as to regulate their energy/arousal levels, regulate mood, enhance mental performance
states, facilitate flow, and improve their qualitative experience. Golfers reported listening to
music with others and alone, and commonly did so during their pre-performance routines and
while practicing. Terry and colleagues (2020) sought to quantify the effects of music in the
contexts of exercise and sport in a meta-analysis, finding that music significantly influences
affective responses (g=0.48), ratings of perceived exertion (g=0.22), and overall performance
(g=0.31).
BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION
4
Similar to the trends seen in the sport emotion regulation literature, the bulk of research
on the impact of music in athletic domains has been focused on the intrapersonal impact on
athletes in individual sports. Bishop et al. (2007) proposed a theory of music use through
interviews with tennis players and stated that aspects such as the athlete’s extra-musical
associations with the song, family and peer influences, film soundtracks/music videos, acoustical
properties, and level of identification with the lyrics or the artist determine an athlete’s pool of
emotive music from which to choose. The athlete’s selection of a song is then mediated by
situational and emotional content/intensity factors. After the athlete selects a song, the actual
emotional intensity experienced is mediated by the time between listening and performance, the
way in which it is delivered (e.g., headphones, sound system), and modifiable musical properties
(e.g., tempo, intensity).
The latest grounded theory, proposed by Karageorghis and colleagues (2018) through
interviews with soccer players, extends the previous theory of music use to the group level. In
their theory, Karageorghis et al. suggest that music components and extra-musical associations
determine a team’s pool of emotive music, with the selection mediated by group factors (music
selector, group cohesion, team atmosphere), task-related factors, and personal factors. Each of
these aspects then influence the effects of music on group cohesion, team performance gains, and
group psychological benefits (e.g., opponent intimidation, residual effects).
While a solid theoretical founding exists for music as an individual performance
enhancement technique (e.g., Gabana et al., 2019) and intrapersonal emotion regulation strategy
(e.g., Bishop et al., 2007) in sport, additional research is still needed to better understand the
impact of music on group performance and for interpersonal emotion regulation. For example,
are the benefits to team sport athletes limited to emotional regulation or do these athletes endorse
BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION
5
other uses? Further, the group music use theory proposed by Karageorghis and colleagues (2018)
has yet to be applied to athletes participating in a team sport other than soccer and additional
research is still needed to understand how music use is experienced at the group level. The aim of
the present research, then, was to explore the experience of athletes selecting and using music in
the context of a team sport and how they experience music individually and as a team for
regulating emotions, enhancing performance, and influencing other team factors (e.g., team
cohesion).
Research Design and Sampling Approach
Methods
A descriptive phenomenological approach (Giorgi, Giorgi, & Morley, 2017) was used to
understand players’ lived experiences and meanings associated with music throughout a typical
gameday. The researchers purposively sampled professional baseball players as the sport offers a
unique context in which baseball is a team sport but consists of a series of individual
performances. Further, music is played before and throughout games, including the unique
aspect of walk-up songs in which a player selects the song he wants to be played throughout the
stadium immediately prior to his performance. The researchers interviewed a total of 9
participants, fitting within the 8-12 range generally considered appropriate for phenomenological
studies (Creswell, 2013). While initially hoping to achieve maximum variation (Patton, 2002)
with participant demographics, time limits and the COVID-19 pandemic led to the authors
shifting focus primarily to convenience. Participants identified as White (n = 8) and Hispanic (n
= 1), ranged in age from 19 to 26 (M = 23.5), and had an average of 2.4 years’ experience
playing at the collegiate level and 3.0 years’ experience playing professional baseball. Four of
the participants were assigned to the AA level of their organization at the time of data collection,
BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION
6
two were assigned to Class A-Advanced (“High A”), one in Class A (“Low A”), one in Class A
short season, and one at the Rookie level. Participants represented a variety of positions
including first baseman (n = 2), catcher (n = 1), relief pitcher (n = 5), and starting pitcher (n = 1).
Philosophical Assumptions
The researchers approached the study from a constructivist paradigm, accepting the
assumptions of a relativist ontology (i.e., existence of multiple realities that are locally and
specifically constructed individually) and a transactional/subjectivist epistemology (i.e., the
researcher and participant work together to co-construct knowledge; Guba & Lincoln, 2005).
This paradigm aligns strongly with the approach of the descriptive phenomenological
psychological method as described by Giorgi, Giorgi, and Morley (2017), in which researchers
aim to reduce participants’ experience with a specific phenomenon down to its core meaning or
essence from a psychological perspective. Further, the researchers employed strategies outlined
by Bevan (2014) to conduct a descriptive phenomenological interview, allowing the researchers
to explore the phenomenon of music listening from multiple realities and co-construct
knowledge by actively participating in interviews.
Procedures
Following approval by the West Virginia University institutional review board, the
authors recruited participants through connections with coaches and team mental skills
consultants, who served as gatekeepers for this study, on professional baseball teams. The first
author contacted mental skills coaches of four different professional baseball organizations and a
position coach from a fifth organization, with only one contact declining participation. The
coaches and mental skills consultants of the four organizations who agreed to help were sent an
email providing a brief overview of the study, information on what participation would entail,
BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION
7
and contact information for the first author. Contacts then forwarded the information to players
within their respective organizations and interested players contacted the first author to schedule
an interview to be conducted via Zoom. One contact from the first organization declined
participation, while four players each from two of the organizations and two players from the
fourth contacted the first author to be interviewed. One player did not complete data collection
after scheduling the interview. As the interviews took place virtually, participants provided
verbal consent in lieu of signed documentation to take part in the study.
In line with descriptive phenomenological interviewing proposed by Bevan (2014), the
interviewers asked descriptive and structural questions to address the themes of contextualization
(i.e., understanding the phenomenon in its naturally experienced context), apprehending the
phenomenon (i.e., understanding the typical attitude/approach to the phenomenon), and
clarifying the phenomenon (i.e., imagining how the experience of the phenomenon would change
in various contexts/circumstances). In line with the constructivist paradigm, Bevan (2014)
argued that one question alone is insufficient for capturing the multiple ways of expressing one’s
experience and interviewers must be prepared to ask additional descriptive questions. The
interviewers thus asked each participant the same open-ended question (i.e., “Tell me about your
experience with music on a baseball gameday.”) to provide contextual information and identify
potential areas for further inquiry, with follow-up probes being used to achieve deeper
descriptions, structure, quality, and clarity of the participants’ experience (e.g., “Tell me what
would happen if you were not able to listen to music in the way that you typically do,” “Tell me
about the effect(s) you think music has on your team as a group.”). While a general list of
potential probe questions was developed to assist in the consistency of the research (Bevan,
2014), probe questions were only used if first prompted by the participant and questions were
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adapted for each individual conversation. Interviews ranged from 24 to 50 minutes in length (M
= 33 minutes), were audio-recorded, and were transcribed verbatim by the first author and an
undergraduate research assistant. During transcription, all names were replaced with pseudonyms
and identifying information was removed to protect participants’ confidentiality.
Data Analysis
Analysis of the transcripts followed the five-step analysis outlined by Giorgi and
colleagues (2017) for descriptive phenomenological psychological studies. A primary research
team, consisting of two students and two recent graduates of a doctoral program for Sport,
Exercise, and Performance Psychology (SEPP), took a collaborative approach to analysis as the
relativist ontology recognizes multiple realities, thus multiple perspectives of the text were
sought. The first step included the four members of the primary research team reading the entire
transcripts in order to gain an overall sense of the description, followed by the second step in
which the primary research team assumed the attitude of phenomenological psychological
reduction (i.e., “view the lived experiences as manifestations of the lived meanings and values
expressed by concrete human subjects,” Giorgi et al., 2017, p. 181). Once the phenomenological
psychological reduction was assumed, the third step consisted of the researchers, while rereading
transcripts, separating the experience into meaning units by marking slashes when he/she
subjectively experienced a shift in meaning. Meaning units were then copied into analysis
spreadsheets, with each cell representing a unique meaning unit. All data were included in this
stage to avoid favoring of some data over others. Within the fourth step, the researchers
transformed the meaning units identified in step three in phenomenologically and
psychologically sensitive ways in order to generalize the meaning for comparison with the other
descriptions. Some transformations took place once while others occurred several times
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depending on the psychological richness of the unit, and each transformation was presented in
the analysis spreadsheets to allow others to follow clearly. Lastly, the researchers reviewed the
final transformations in the fifth step to determine key meanings and what is essential to the
description of the phenomenon. An example of this process would be Randy’s statement
regarding the American and Latino/Hispanic athletes playing music in the clubhouse that, “I
think that’s… good for both sides and they’re kind of bringing and we are kind of sharing some
of our [music] with them. And at the end of the day that doesn’t do nothing but help us grow as
teammates I feel like” being identified as an initial meaning unit. This unit was first transformed
to, “He thinks music in the clubhouse is good to share culture amongst teammates and helps
them to grow as teammates,” and then again to, “Music can be used for sharing culture and
increasing team cohesion.”
Each member of the primary group completed the steps separately over a span of eight
weeks, meeting for weekly debriefs to discuss thoughts on and questions about the data.
Following the fifth step, the primary team then discussed the essential factors identified in each
individual interview and compared the findings across interviews and members. An SEPP
faculty member served as a critical friend following the fourth step, and an additional SEPP
faculty member served as a final critical friend for the fifth step. As emphasized in the
descriptive phenomenological psychological approach (Giorgi et al., 2017), the authors then
compared the final data to that of existing theoretical models of athlete music use (Karageorghis
et al., 2018), general models of emotion regulation (Gross, 1998), and emotion regulation in
sport (Campo et al., 2017). Suitability of this approach to analysis was gleaned from similar data
analyses used in recent publications in the field of sport psychology (e.g., Coker-Cranney et al.,
2017; Grindstaff, Wrisberg, & Ross, 2010; Wadey et al., 2013).
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Research Quality and Rigor
As the researchers adopted a constructivist paradigm, a standardized list of criteria (e.g.,
Tracy, 2010) for judging the quality of qualitative inquiries was not applicable (see Smith &
McGannon, 2017). Instead, constructivist researchers have been encouraged to select criteria
relevant to the purpose and context of the study (Smith & McGannon, 2017). The researchers in
the present study worked to ensure rigor and quality through several strategies including the
creation of self-reflexive statements, conducting a pilot interview, maintaining analytic memos,
and the use of critical friends. Prior to analysis, each member of the primary research team
created a self-reflexive statement to assist in bracketing, assuming the scientific
phenomenological reduction (Giorgi et al., 2017), and to increase dependability in the research
through transparency. To further increase dependability and transparency, each of the steps taken
in analysis were recorded and saved (including each transformation) while all members of the
primary research team kept analytic memos following each step. Many of the memos described
initial reactions to and thoughts about the text, which assisted the research team in bracketing
those thoughts and reactions before returning to the data to explore alternative interpretations. To
address confirmability, the researchers conducted a pilot interview prior to the study with a
collegiate club baseball player and employed the use of critical friends throughout analysis. The
inclusion of critical friends acknowledged the possibility of other interpretations of the data and
allowed for challenges to interpretations and opportunities for dialogue (Smith & McGannon,
2017).
During analysis, the investigators remained open and responsive to the process while
employing verification strategies as identified by Morse and colleagues (2002). The researchers
selected a descriptive psychological phenomenological method to best align with questions
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regarding players’ experience with music (i.e., methodological coherence) and interviewed
professional baseball players with unique and extensive experience with music (i.e., appropriate
sample). Data was concurrently collected and analyzed, while ideas that emerged during analysis
were recorded for verification in later interviews (e.g., thinking theoretically). Lastly, proposed
theories were used for comparison and new findings helped to further develop said theories.
Results
Participants described music being integral throughout their gameday experiences. The
results were thus divided into three sections representing the levels at which music was used by
participants: individually, with the team, and in the stadium. Certain aspects of the music
experience (e.g., music in routines, process of selecting music, the purpose of music, the impact
of music, and walk-up songs) permeated through every level of use, though they were altered
slightly with each level. These levels were not static, but rather overlapped with one another as
demonstrated in Figure 1.
Individual Listening
[Insert Figure 1 here]
At the individual level, players described listening to music in their vehicles on the way
to and from the stadium (e.g., it “kind of starts like earlier in the day almost. You know, driving
to the park.” -Sam; “On the road… I like to listen to music when we all get on the bus and we are
on our way to the field.” -Luis) and through headphones on the bus and in the clubhouse/locker
room. Participants described choosing music for themselves based on personal preferences,
expressing a range of preferences and tastes in music, while also being generally flexible in the
type of music to which they listened. Personal music preferences were typically developed
through identification with the music through such facets as their memories and associations with
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certain music, experiences, and cultural backgrounds. Ken conveyed his preference for country
music in saying, “my town is like 1,500 people, I mean super small town. A lot of dirt roads, a
lot of mountains, like I’m a country boy, and, uh, that music relaxes me, man.”
Selection. Players were able to exercise autonomy in their music selections when
listening individually, though not always intentionally choosing particular songs. Participants
explained the importance of timing in that their music use earlier in the day was typically focused
on entertainment and served more as “background noise,” with selections being less intentional
(e.g., listening to the radio, putting personal music on shuffle). This music was primarily used as
a way of improving the qualitative experience earlier in the day. Music selections then become
more intentional and purposeful as the game neared with the overall goal shifting to that of
enhancing individual performance. To do so, players selected music they felt would help them
with such skills as regulating energy/arousal, regulating emotions, and allocating attention.
Purpose. The reason most frequently cited reason for music use was energy/arousal
management. Players expressed that music helped them both to decrease and increase
energy/arousal levels depending on their individual needs. Using music for energy/arousal
regulation was most commonly used immediately prior to performance, with the direction of
regulation depending on the players’ perceptions of what will help them best perform. Lee
expressed experiencing a decrease in energy/arousal while listening to music, saying, “I will be
listening to music for probably about an hour or so… before we have to get out on the field, and
I just kinda let that lead me into the game… kind of step out on the field in a relaxed, calm state
and just be ready for the game at that point.” Other participants like Dan, however, used music at
the same point to increase arousal/energy, noting that he wants to have so much energy that he,
“feel[s] like [he] could run through a wall when [he’s] listening to music.”
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Players also conveyed using music for emotion regulation, most frequently in decreasing
feelings of stress and anxiety and increasing feelings of happiness, calmness, inspiration, and
confidence. Three participants discussed regulating their emotions by listening to music that
triggers memories associated with the desired emotion. Ken mentioned using music to help him
tap in to his “happy place,” while Ron summarized this aspect in saying:
Certain songs can trigger nostalgia or, you know, past events in our life where this song
reminds us of it… there’s a song that, it’s one of my favorite songs, and I’ll listen to it
before games all the time because it reminds me of when… I was trying to get a
scholarship for college. And this same song was always playing… whenever I was
working out or hitting at this sports facility. And at this particular time in my life, I was
trying to get back into baseball and… so every time this song would pop up in my
playlist or whatever, it reminds me of that time in my life. And it’s truly inspiring
because… I think of the song at the point in time to where I was introduced to the song,
and now here I am listening to that same song and I’m in my dream scenario, right?
Regarding emotion regulation at the individual level, participants primarily referred to using
music to elicit a certain emotion rather than match what they are feeling at the time.
Another reason identified by participants for using music was to assist in attention
management. Participants described using music to help in directing attention to the task at hand
(e.g., “leading up to the game, like if I need… if I’m way checked-out, music will kind of check
you back in.” -Eric), as well as using it as a form of distraction. Ken discussed this form of music
use for lifting weights, saying:
That music, it just helps me get in the weight room, get my stuff done. I’m listening to…
the pump up music and it kind of just takes my mind away from, “Damnit, I’ve got to go
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back into the weight room again man, this is going to suck and I know my body is going
to feel like hell while I’m going through this workout.” But like when I have that music
blasting in the background, it… kind of helps me forget about all that it helps me, uh, like
kind of drown out those thoughts.
Similar to distracting from fatigue to complete difficult workouts, participants expressed using
music to alleviate boredom and get through what can, at times, be repetitive, mundane schedules.
Music use was not the same throughout players’ experiences, but rather all participants
described their experience with selecting music on a gameday as a learning process. Players
expressed changing the music they listen to on gamedays through previous experiences and
reflection on associated performance. Lee summarized this learning process from his experience,
stating:
And I found the higher tempo… more, you know, like hard rap, that kind of stuff, kinda
had me a little more on edge and I would get more upset about mistakes instead of just
kind of letting them go. Especially since it was just the bullpen, and then I would kind of
bring that into my game and if I made a bad pitch or something, I would get really
frustrated instead of just focusing on the next pitch and letting it fall by the wayside. And
I found when I listen to, you know slower more relaxed music… kind of put me in that
mindset.
Reflections on how the individual performed after listening to certain music was most often
identified as the reason for adapting their song selections.
Routine. This learning process, along with the impact of music on energy/arousal
regulation, emotion regulation, and attention management, helped players integrate music into
their pre-performance routines. Ron stated that he believes “95% of players have some sort of
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music involved with their daily routine… especially at the field,” a testimonial that was
supported by other participants. Max provided an example of his own routine, describing it as,
“an hour of music that’s like whatever first. Then, as we get closer, it’s more and more serious of
music. Then, it’s just like the last seven minutes is Through the Fire and Flames just because that
song is seven minutes long.” While all participants discussed music listening in general as part of
their routines, a few other participants also mentioned their routine including a particular
selection of songs, exemplified by Sam saying that he, “had… 5-10 songs [he] would listen to
before… like, almost pretty much the exact same playlist [he] would listen to before each game.”
Similarly, Lee explains that he will, “go through streaks where [he]’ll… have a specific 5 to 8
songs” to which he listens while doing dry runs (a warm-up used by pitchers in which they throw
pitches while simulating in-game situations).
Participants explained that the music within their pre-performance routines helped to
trigger a “performance mindset.” Sam spoke to pre-performance routines, noting, “It’s almost
like [Pavlov’s dog]… your mom rings the dinner bell… It’s time for me to get my mindset
ready… It’s time to be focused. And for the next… 3 or 4 hours I was pretty much locked in.”
He went on to explain the consistency of using his routine, saying:
With the music, I was able to listen to it and like almost trick my mind into thinking like
it didn’t matter where I was, I was in the same place, you know? It’s still going to be a
game at 7 o’clock, or like 5 o’clock, no matter what. If I could listen to some of the songs
on the playlist, it’s like some familiar almost feel to every day where I know what’s
going to happen.
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Players discussed using routines to increase the consistency of their performance, with the
accessibility and ease of music being particularly helpful in creating a routine for both home and
away games.
If they were not able to have music, most participants simply discussed finding
alternatives to replace music in their routines that, though difficult or potentially less effective,
would still help them achieve the desired objective. Lee summarized identifying an alternative,
saying:
I honestly think I would have to sit in the field and meditate. Because it puts… you at
ease, you know, it kind of relaxes you and gives you… like a focused mindlessness. And
like… reaching a level… of sereneness or something like that, like I said I would have to
go sit by myself and like you know? Like I said meditate, some type of yoga or
something, just ‘cause you have to find something to change that mindset to get you
focus into the game and like music is a huge component in that.
While not necessary for their performance or experience, participants explained that music acts
as a quick, accessible, and effective vehicle that can be utilized for various purposes.
Team Listening
Routine. Participants described team-level music listening in the clubhouse/locker room
via a sound system. Music is a constant in the clubhouse from the perspective of the participants,
as Ken stated that, “music is always on in the club house. Always, always,” and Lee reported
that, “in the clubhouse we usually… they’re usually playing, you know, some kind of music very
loud.” Players conveyed music again playing in the clubhouse after games. Music playing in the
clubhouse is such a consistent part of the experience that Tom noted, “the locker room and stuff
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would be really just kind of weird if there was, like, nothing in the background playing. Like that
would just be strange. The quiet, yeah, that’d be strange.”
Selection. Within the team, participants explained that there is normally a group of 2-3
individuals who rotate having control of the music played over the speaker in the clubhouse,
however all players are still able to have some input. As explained by Eric, “you are in a locker
room full of outspoken humans. Like, it will happen, someone will yell, ‘Who the hell is on the
aux? Change this,’ or whatever it is, so. You’ll get that every now and then.” Participants
expressed experiencing a more significant impact of music when they are personally able to be
involved in the selection process. Players listening individually were choosing songs based on
their personal needs and preferences, while they aimed for more neutral music that would make
everyone happy when choosing for the group. Dan, who identified as being one of the
individuals responsible for choosing music in the clubhouse for his team, spoke to group music
selection in saying, “It is more of a neutral taste that I play with everybody mixed in with a little
bit of what I listen to because I’m in in charge, so, I’m going to play what I like, too.”
The role of music selector for the group becomes solidified as the season continues
depending on which individuals are successful in meeting the needs of the team. This role is
typically filled by an older team member who is generally well-liked by teammates. As
explained by Tom:
I think you have to have like a little bit of a… I don’t know like a swagger. Like you have
to be someone… everybody like pretty much likes, you know. And it’s not like gonna be
like the guy that like only a few people like. Or like, some people just don’t really like to
hang out with or something, you know. They’re not gonna like let them, ‘cause like
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you’re controlling for everyone. So, it’s gotta be… it’s pretty much someone that like
everybody’s like cool with and like okay with him being in charge, I guess.
Participants conveyed this role as an important role on the team particularly due to the aspect of
having control over part of the experience of teammates.
Purpose. Similar to individual listening, participants cited music serving as a way of
enhancing team performance through regulating the energy/arousal levels and emotions of the
group. Participants described music for team energy/arousal regulation in similar pattern as
individually, using calmer, more relaxed music earlier and increase the volume and tempo of the
music closer to the beginning of the game. Max spoke to this experience following his team’s
daily practice, stating the music being played is, “just relaxing. We just got off the field, um,
nothing too crazy too, you know? Something that’s not going to get our energy going too much.
Then, as game time gets closer and closer, some higher energy stuff.” Many of the participants
additionally discussed the use of music in the clubhouse for team emotion regulation. Dan
explained music “that gets everyone in the right mood, it really has an effect on just your
feelings.” This music can also indirectly affect some participants through their teammates. Ron
explained that, “even if you’re not, you know, a particular fan of a certain genre of music that’s
playing on the loudspeaker, let’s say there’s a group of guys on the team that are, and they start
rocking out to it. Now, okay, you can start rolling with it… It’s contagious.” Sam spoke to these
factors for enhancing team performance, summarizing:
When everyone’s kind of listening to the same song and you have like… a good vibe
throughout the locker room it’s… it’s like everyone’s kind of bonding to the same thing.
You’re kind of all going the same direction… the more people you can get going in the
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same direction on the team, like kind of the better you’re gonna be in the end. Like
whether you win or lose it’s one thing, but definitely it gives you a better chance to win.
Music was not perceived by the participants as an advantage in and of itself, but rather a tool that
could help to improve chances of winning through these strategies.
Participants also identified music in the locker room as salient for the purpose of
improving team chemistry, explaining that music helped to make it easier to interact with one
another, allowed teammates to share their respective cultures, and provided insight into
teammates’ personalities. Tom mentioned bonding with teammates by discussing music in the
clubhouse, stating it, “has positive effects because everyone kind of talks about that music. Like,
‘Oh my gosh, this guy’s playing this again.’ Or like, ‘Oh, I love whenever he’s on the aux, he’s
got some good music.’”
Several participants specifically identified music in the clubhouse creating shared
experiences that could serve as a bridge for players of different races, cultures, and nationalities
to bond as a group. Lee stated the music, “made it easier to socialize with each other,
especially… With the language barrier and that kind of thing. Um, just having something loud on
in the background makes it a little bit easier to talk to each other, you know? Guys are dancing
and that kind of thing, it makes it… more happy and, um, inviting environment I would say.”
Ken also spoke this piece, summarizing:
And I mean they a lot of [my Latino teammates] don’t understand English, a lot of the
American players don’t understand Spanish. So, we kind of… came to an agreement this
year, every Latino song we have to play an American song and it’s back and forth and
back and forth… but also I think… that’s good for both sides and they’re kind of bringing
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their culture onto us and we are kind of sharing some of ours with them. And at the end
of the day, that doesn’t do nothing but help us grow as teammates I feel like.
Another distinction participants learned through group music listening regarding the influence of
culture was the different preferences between international Hispanic/Latino players and those
from the United States. Hispanic and Latino players were identified as typically listening to more
energetic, high-tempo music, and typically did so at a louder volume.
Rather than selecting music to elicit certain emotions or energy/arousal levels,
participants noted that music after the game was aimed at matching the mood of the team and
“setting a tone” for the clubhouse. This selection was largely dependent on the team’s
performance outcome. Eric described this factor, noting, “it’s really based on what you do out
there on the field. Lose, low… you know, low music puts you in that mood of just saying, ‘We’ll
get them next time’ kind of deal. Same thing goes for when you win, it’s just, ‘Alright, we won,
we can do whatever we want basically, so let’s crank it up!’”
Stadium Listening
Selection and Routine. While on the field, participants described listening to music via
the stadium’s sound system. Listening to music on the stadium’s sound system occurs during the
players’ practices and warm-ups (e.g., batting practice) prior to the game, as well as throughout
the game itself. The vast majority of this music is selected by the organization’s staff, with the
exception of players’ walk-up/walk-out songs. The interviewees explained that, between innings,
music is played throughout the stadium and is commonly tied with promotional material and
advertisements, and a similar selection of songs are used by different stadiums and at all levels.
Participants noted the routine nature of these playlists as stadiums will typically use the same
songs at the same points throughout the game (e.g., “Take Me Out to the Ballgame” after the 7th
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inning). Many of these songs then become associated with playing and watching baseball in
stadiums, tend to be family-friendly, and are used as a way of making the game more enjoyable
for fans. Ken spoke to this aspect of the experience, saying:
I know in-between innings… they’ll usually play music kinda for the crowd. After,
like… while the pitcher is throwing his seven or eight warm up pitches and the infield is
taking grounders and stuff waiting for the other team to come hit, that is when you hear
the stadium has just a just a fan playlist. And, um, it’s usually got some modern stuff, a
lot of throwback, like a lot of 80’s and just baseball ballpark music. I feel like every
stadium has that and I… have probably heard that around ball parks so much since I was
a little kid… I feel like that is kind of a must at baseball games is to kind of have just
these baseball songs, like just old-school stuff. That’s what I have always heard growing
up around ball fields.
While these songs are not chosen by the players, participants described being able to use the
music for similar purposes as when listening by themselves and with their teams.
Impact. Several participants explained that music helped them flow with the game of
baseball and allocate their attention as needed. Ron summarized this piece of the experience,
explaining:
With baseball it’s a very… there’s a lot of lapses in action or rest I guess you could say.
It’s a very, ‘run as fast as you can and then stop because now you have to wait for the
next play to happen,’ you know what I mean? So… there is a lot of down time on the
field as well… But while I’m waiting, why not listen to music? Right? Every song has a
different beat, every song has a different chorus, whatever… It’s a great distraction to be
able to focus in and then focus out. So, you get to kind of zone out with the music while
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you’re waiting and then boom, once you’re round comes up, you’re focused in again.
And we’re taught as baseball players to be able to have that ability to zone in and zone
out. Because if you’re trying to focus 100% of the time when there’s 200+ pitches thrown
per game, it’s impossible I mean we’re human beings, right? And we only have so long
of an attention span.
Some participants reiterated the potentially distracting impact of stadium music, though they
largely described having momentary distractions when it did occur.
As a team, the stadium music again created shared experiences among teammates. In
discussing this experience with his teammates, Tom expressed that:
We really liked… these like two Dua Lipa songs because they kept coming on between
the innings for like this ad for like a casino or something and so… everybody just kind of
vibes with it because we're like, “oh, that’s that song!” Like, we just kind of like it from
that experience and stuff, you know?
The participants mentioned that these songs heard repeatedly over the stadium, regardless of
whether they matched with personal preferences, could help teammates bond with one another.
Walk-Up/Walk-Out Songs. While players acknowledged that music being played in
stadiums can be experienced in other sports as well, several mentioned the unique integration of
walk-up/walk-out songs. Dan discussed the uniqueness and widespread use of walk-up songs,
explaining that, “no other sport has like, ‘When I do this, play this.’ So… it’s just a different…
thing that the sport of baseball has… Now, every team… it is like okay you do this, you get your
jersey number, you get your uniform, and you say your walk-out.”
As walk-up/walk-out songs are the only times that players are able to select the music
being played in the stadium and are tied with an individual’s performance, participants described
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the process of choosing a song as being hours-long and was different for position players and
pitchers. Walk-up songs, used for hitters, are around 15-second clips of a song selected by an
athlete to be played as they walk to the plate and thus occur multiple times in a game. Some
individuals choose one song to be played for all of their at-bats, while others prefer to use a few
rotating songs. Walk-out songs are typically longer (about 1 minute in length) and are chosen by
relief pitchers to be played as they run onto the field and warm-up during the game. These songs
are thus only played once per game.
Participants expressed often being highly intentional and purposeful with the song and
timing of the song to be played. Some players reported choosing a walk-up/walk-out song that
would have a direct impact on them in hopes of enhancing performance. One such use was to
elicit a desired emotion, as Lee stated that listening to his song, “Kind of gives [him] confidence.
Kind of swagger on the mound that like [he] feel[s] comfortable and [he’s] in a good state.”
Another reason was to use the song for regulating arousal. Ken, about hearing his walk-up song
being played, stated, “I can feel my breathing getting slower, and I think that is the key to it,
man. When you get in the box, can you slow your heart rate down.”
Outside of performance, several players mentioned choosing a walk-up/walk-out song
that represented who they are as a person or as a baseball player. Dan explained that, “If it’s
someone’s walk-out, it’s a personal song that they chose, so, it represents them walking up to the
plate,” while describing his own process of choosing a song in saying, “ I always pick something
that hits close to home because it is like… just like, I don’t know, it is just the way it has been. It
is like I have to pay my respect almost, but it is not that. I pay my respect to what made me who I
am. So, I’m going to take it everywhere I go kind of thing.” Similarly, Ron described choosing
his walk-up to be a tribute, saying, “in college, I had a Frank Sinatra song actually. And, um… it
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was, it was I guess you could say it was a tribute to my dad and my family. Because they’re
based out of Chicago and Frank Sinatra is a Chicago legend.”
In addition to a self-focused selection, players also utilize their walk-up/walk-out songs
to engage the crowd. Luis expressed the fans as the primary factor in his selection, stating,
“every walk song I have chosen, I have chosen it for the crowd, it’s not for me. A lot of people
do it to get the crowd going, not to get themselves going… I choose a song I like, then I tell
myself is the crowd going to like it.” Some players did so with the ultimate goal of regulating
their own energy/arousal, as Ron explained that, “with the audience being engaged, obviously
that’s gonna have an effect on him. I mean if you have 500 people behind you engaged in what
you’re about to do, if you as an individual can’t get engaged because of that then you should
check your pulse for sure.” Other players used walk-up/walk-out songs as a way of connecting
with the fan base. Luis expounded on this particular use with his walk-up song, saying:
I got really good responses… by the crowd, uh, people actually like sent me [direct
messages] and stuff like, ‘Hey, I love your walk-up song! It's so different! Like…
actually that’s cool… I like being able to tweet, to go search me on Twitter or Instagram
and be like, ‘Yo, I like your walk-up song.’ It’s pretty cool.
One participant mentioned that the walk-up/walk-out song can serve as a way of giving fans
insight into the type of music players listen to and their personalities.
Participants depicted their walk-up/walk-out selection as a continuous process and
explained reasons for changing music. A few examples were identified by participants in which a
player keeps their specific song and it becomes strongly associated with him (e.g., Mariano
Rivera), however most players change their song yearly. Another common reason for changing
songs was due to performance. Dan summarized this reasoning:
BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION
25
That is one of the first things. ‘Oh man, I went 0-4 today with four strike outs, gotta
change my walk-up.’ Like it is just something… baseball is also very superstitious [sic]
in that aspect. So, it is like… So that’s going to be the first thing you change. It is a
routine; you’ve got to change a routine. If you keep making the same mistake, you’ve got
to change the routine, change the path you are taking.
While this change typically occurred between games, some participants cited changes even
occurring in-game.
A final reason for changing walk-up songs was feedback, usually negative, from
teammates. As explained by Ken, “some guys just don’t like to catch slaps from other teammates
like, ‘Man, that song. Why you listening to that? What is that? How does that hype you up?’
Some people just can't take it and… they’ll change it. They want to find a song they think is
pleasing everyone.”
Though participants reported multiple reasons for choosing music to listen to, players
often make interpretations of others’ selections of walk-up/walk-out songs. Players explained a
perception that the music chosen by others can provide insight into their teammates, as well as
their competitors. To this point, Tom stated, “And it’s kind of funny to see like further into
people based on what they do for that, it’s… it’s pretty neat to hear other, different tastes and
what they feel like is a good walk-up song, or if it’s actually just a song that they like. It’s kind
of funny to see.” Ken expressed how he interprets opposing players’ walk-up songs, saying,
“when I’m catching, I’ll listen to a walk-up song and… it is a little game I’ll play with myself
when I’m back behind the plate. Probably look at the scoreboard and listen to the song and be
like, ‘I wonder where this guy is from?’ And a lot of time it’ll fool me… but it is so cool how
BASEBALL MUSIC INTEGRATION
26
like it doesn’t it doesn’t matter I guess where you’re from if like there’s a lot of different people,
which is really cool.”
Discussion
The current study was designed to explore baseball players’ experience with selecting
and using music, as well as their perceptions of the impact of music on gameday. Conducting
phenomenological interviews with professional baseball players allowed the researchers to
investigate the thoughts about, feelings toward, and motivations for music listening at both the
individual and team levels across performance as experienced by the players. The authors
compared findings from the present study with current theories on music use for psychological
preparation, emotion regulation in sport, and other theories used in applied sport psychology,
with participant descriptions helping to both support and extend the literature. For example, to
the best of the authors’ knowledge, no studies to date have explored the use of music at the
differing levels (i.e., individual, team, stadium) and at different stages throughout a gameday
(e.g., pre-game, during game, post-game).
Music Selection and Use
At all levels and stages, music selection was a process, music was part of the gameday
routine, songs were selected for intended purposes, and listening had perceived effects. While
sharing these themes across levels, each level of listening altered the ways in which music was
used and experienced in unique ways. Individual listening took place throughout the day before
and after games and happened in the individual’s car or via headphones. Descriptions of
participants’ individual music listening before games supported previous f
Using the social ecological model to build a path analysis model of physical activity in a sample of active US college students : Using the social ecological model to build a path analysis model
of physical activity in a sample of active US college students
Jonathan J. Stewart
West Virginia University, jjstewart@mix.wvu.edu
Follow this and additional works at: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd
Part of the Health Psychology Commons, and the Sports Studies Commons
Recommended Citation
Stewart, Jonathan J., "Using the social ecological model to build a path analysis model of physical activity
in a sample of active US college students" (2020). Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports.
7652.
https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd/7652
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Using the social ecological model to build a path analysis model of physical activity in a sample
of active US college students
Jonathan Stewart, M.S.
Dissertation submitted
to the College of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences
at West Virginia University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctorate of Philosophy in
Kinesiology
With an emphasis in Sport and Exercise Psychology
Sam Zizzi, Ed.D. (Committee Chair)
Christa Lilly, Ph.D.
Scott Barnicle, Ph.D.
Jack C. Watson II, Ph.D.
Department of Sport Sciences
Morgantown, West Virginia
2019
Keywords: physical activity, alcohol use, college, social ecological model, achievement goal
Copyright 2019 Jonathan Stewart
Abstract
Using the social ecological model to build a path analysis model of physical activity in a sample
of active US college students
Jonathan Stewart, M.S.
Objective: To examine how achievement goal orientation, perceived barriers and benefits, self
efficacy, on-campus residence, transportation, and binge drinking impact physical activity.
Participants: Five hundred and twenty (70.23% female) college students participated in the
study during Fall 2014. Methods: Students completed an online questionnaire that measured
environmental and psychosocial factors, and physical activity behaviors. Results: A path
analysis revealed that self-efficacy, episodes of binge drinking, use of active transportation, and
use of public transportation all had significant direct effects on physical activity. Meanwhile,
perceived barriers had a significant negative direct effect on physical activity. Conclusion:
Results indicate that both environmental and psychological factors influence engagement in
physical activity.
iii
Acknowledgements
I would like to start by thanking my family for being a consistent source of support and
motivation. Clay and Logan, you have both helped keep me motivated and grounded throughout
this journey. I am incredibly proud of you both. Mom and Dad, you have both taught me so
much. To my whole family, you all have given me so much over the years and I appreciate you
all more than you know.
Next I would like to thank my WVU family for making this adventure a memorable one. Thank
you for listening to me when I needed to vent, for teaching me to dress in the cold weather, for
the early morning office chats, and the company during those late night writing sessions. You
have all left a permanent imprint on my life in one way or another. I am a better person for the
time that we all had together. Aaron and Zenzi. Thank you for being consistent sources of
guidance, motivation, and laughs no matter the physical distance. Carra, thanks for challenging
me and providing wisdom I didn’t even know I needed. I would also like to thank all of my
Public Health colleagues and peers. My experiences in Public Health have shaped my view of
the world in ways I never could have imagined.
To the WVU and SEP faculty, thank you for giving me the opportunity to pursue my dream.
Your trust and faith in me helped me grow into the person that I am today. Dr. Zizzi, thank you
for your unwavering support, especially near the end. Your trust in me helped me learn to trust
myself. Thank you for meeting me at the base of the mountain and guiding me to the top. Dr.
Lilly, thank you for your guidance, support, and (perhaps most of all) your patience. Your
willingness to go above and beyond is greatly appreciated. Dr. Watson, thank you for being there
throughout my time in Morgantown and not letting me disappear once I left town. Dr. Barnicle,
thank you for your support and for challenging me take a different perspective. Dr. Etzel, your
wise words continue to resonate with me both personally and professionally. Ashley, you helped
me find my passion in applied work and reminded me why I wanted to study SEP in the first
place. For that I will be forever grateful. Dr. Giacobbi, thank you helping me to develop my
research skills as I was first embarking on this PhD journey and for helping introduce me to the
world of Public Health.
I would also like to thank all of colleagues at the SRC. Nancy, thank you for always providing a
break from academia, your mentorship, and professional and general life guidance. You always
said what I needed to here, regardless of whether or not I wanted to hear it. I’ll always be
grateful for that and for everything you have done for me.
Last, but certainly not least, thank you to my R2 friends and family. Hayley, James, Brittney,
Matt, Will, and Patrick. Thank you for being a steady source of support, motivation, a sounding
board, and for putting up with me as I finished this journey.
iv
Table of Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1
Socioecological Model ................................................................................................................ 4
Environmental Factors ................................................................................................................ 5
Individual Factors ........................................................................................................................ 6
Methods........................................................................................................................................... 9
Research Design .......................................................................................................................... 9
Instruments ................................................................................................................................ 10
Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 13
Results ........................................................................................................................................... 14
Discussion ..................................................................................................................................... 16
Limitations ................................................................................................................................ 21
Future Directions ....................................................................................................................... 22
Application ................................................................................................................................ 24
Table 1 – Sample Characteristics .................................................................................................. 39
Table 2 – Descriptive Statistics ..................................................................................................... 41
Table 3 - Correlations ................................................................................................................... 43
Table 4 – Fit Indices ..................................................................................................................... 45
Table 5 – Indirect Effects .............................................................................................................. 46
Figure 1 – Hypothesized Model .................................................................................................... 47
Figure 2 – SAS Revised Model .................................................................................................... 48
Figure 3 – Final Model ................................................................................................................. 49
Appendix A. Extended Review of the Literature .......................................................................... 50
References ..................................................................................................................................... 77
Running Head: A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
1
Introduction
Physical inactivity and alcohol consumption are two risk factors commonly associated
with the development of a number of chronic diseases and premature death (Lee et al., 2012;
Warburton et al., 2006; World Health Organization, 2018). Alcohol consumption, including an
increased number of daily drinks, drinking frequency, and heavy episodic drinking, has been
associated with academic problems, injuries, and risky behavior in college students and emerging
adults (18-24 years of age) (Hingson, 2017; Kuperberg & Padgett, 2017; Rinker et al., 2016). In
contrast, physical activity can serve as a protective factor and reduce the risk of developing
chronic diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, and colon cancer (Kyu et al., 2016; Lee, Sesso,
Oguma, & Paffenbarger, 2003). Individuals who are physically active in early adulthood (18-22
years old) are more likely to be physically active later in life (Nogueira et al., 2009). Thus,
physical activity behaviors and increased frequency of drinking during the college years (i.e.
generally 18-24 years of age) have the potential to have lasting impacts later in life.
The American College Health Association (2019) defined recommended levels of
physical activity as a minimum of 30 minutes of moderate intensity cardio or aerobic exercise on
5 or more days per week, or at least 20 minutes of vigorous cardio or aerobic exercise on 3 or
more days per week. The American College Health Association (2019) reported data from
54,497 students in the Spring 2019 National College Health Assessment II (ACHA-NCHA II). In
this large sample, 46.2% of undergraduate students met recommended levels of exercise based
on self-reported data (American College Health Association, 2019). The ACHA semi-annual
survey includes items assessing a wide variety of health- and academic-related variables using a
comprehensive self-report survey. Colleges and universities use this data to compare self
reported behaviors on their campus to national norms.
A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
2
One of the most common health behaviors studied along with physical activity in US
college students is alcohol consumption. The American College Health Association (2019)
recently stated that 55.8% of undergraduate college students reported consuming an alcoholic
beverage within the previous 30 days. Among the students who consumed alcohol, 33.3%
reported doing something they regretted while drinking in the past 12 months.
Furthermore, Soedamah-Muthu, De Neve, Shelton, Tielemans, and Stamatakis (2013)
have reported a joint association between alcohol consumption, level of physical activity, and
risk of cardiovascular mortality and all-cause mortality. Physical activity was measured in MET
hours/week. METs (or metabolic equivalents) represent energy expenditure at different
intensities (i.e. 1 MET represents sitting quietly). Alcohol was measured in units (1 unite = 8g of
ethanol or approximately 4 oz. of wine or 8 oz. of beer). When physical activity was low (.1 to 5
MET-hours/week for males and .1 to 4 MET-hours/week for females) and alcohol consumption
was high (>35 units/week for males and >21 units/week for females) there is an increased risk of
cardiovascular mortality (HR 1.95) and all-cause mortality (HR 1.64). However, the researchers
found that when physical activity was high (>5 MET-hours/week for males and >4 MET
hours/week for females), high alcohol intake was not linked to increased risk of cardiovascular
mortality. Thus, both alcohol intake and physical activity are important for reducing risk of all
cause mortality and cardiovascular mortality. However, given that high alcohol intake was not
associated with increased risk of cardiovascular mortality in the presence of high levels of
physical activity, physical inactivity may be a larger contributing factor to the risk of
cardiovascular mortality than alcohol consumption.
Contrary to what may be expected, level of physical activity is commonly associated
with alcohol consumption in college students. Students who self-reported consumption of
alcohol within the past 30 days were 40% more likely to have used the campus recreation facility
A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
3
compared to those who had not consumed alcohol (Miller, Noland, Rayens, & Staten, 2008). The
amount of alcohol consumed while binge drinking (r=.13) and self-reported level of drinking
(r=.08) have been found to be positively associated (though weakly) with leisure time physical
activity (Stuntz, Smith, & Vensel, 2017). Graupensperger, Wilson, Bopp, and Blair Evans (2018)
found that alcohol consumption was associated with vigorous, but not moderate, physical activity
across a six month study. Despite these associations, the underlying mechanism for the
relationship between alcohol consumption and physical activity is unclear. Some hypothesize
that students may engage in physical activity to compensate for the alcohol consumed while
drinking (Abrantes et al., 2017; Graupensperger et al., 2018).
A variety of other factors have been linked to alcohol consumption in college students,
including location of residence, social influence, and alcohol related norms (Abrantes et al.,
2017; Arterberry, Smith, Martens, Cadigan, & Murphy, 2014; Graupensperger et al., 2018;
Weitzman, Nelson, & Wechsler, 2003; Yoon, Kim, & Lee, 2014). For example, researchers have
investigated the relationship between protective behavioral strategies, alcohol related norms, and
alcohol behavior in a sample of college students (Arterberry et al., 2014). The researchers noted
that social norms, such as perceived alcohol consumption among other students, were positively
associated with alcohol use. These studies did not examine important environmental factors in
relation to physical activity, such as transportation.
Given the positive association between alcohol consumption and levels of physical
activity, it is important to have a better understanding of this relationship, and the factors that
impact both behaviors to reduce alcohol consumption without reducing physical activity.
Therefore, there is a need to approach these behaviors through a framework such as the social
ecological model. This will allow for the inclusion of different factors, at multiple levels, that
influence engagement in health behaviors.
A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
4
Socioecological Model
The simple provision of physical activity recommendations by organizations and the
government has been ineffective at increasing physical activity behaviors at the population level
(Guthold et al., 2018; Pratt et al., 2015; Sallis et al., 2016; Schwartz et al., 2019). Despite
increased awareness of these recommendations, from 2001 to 2016, the level of insufficient
physical activity in high income countries increased from 31.6% to 36.8% (Guthold et al., 2018).
Thus, researchers have emphasized the application of theoretical frameworks to the study of
physical activity (R. E. Rhodes et al., 2019). For example, in a recent review, researchers
summarized randomized (RCT) and non-randomized (NRCT) control trials that promoted
physical activity in university students (Maselli et al., 2018). Researchers utilized more than one
theory to inform intervention design in multiple trials. All but one of the effective interventions
addressed multiple components of physical activity behavior, however, the majority of these
studies focused on individual or interpersonal factors and excluded environmental factors, which
are often the most dynamic and complex in nature.
The central theory of a social ecological model is that behavior is the result of various
nested levels of interpersonal, intrapersonal, and environmental influences (Bronfenbrenner,
1977; Sallis et al., 2008; Spence & Lee, 2003). Over time, physical activity researchers have
begun to favor the incorporation of multiple levels of influence. Bauman et al. (2012) examined
reviews of physical activity with a focus on individual, interpersonal, environmental, regional or
national policies, and global factors across a wide array of age groups and cultures. The authors
of this review note that both environmental and personal factors may influence physical activity
behavior. Thus, the inclusion of multiple environmental, psychosocial, and behavioral factors
may provide additional insight into physical activity behavior beyond a more singular focus
(Bauman et al., 2012; Sallis et al., 2006; Spence & Lee, 2003). To accomplish this goal,
A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
5
researchers may need to use more advanced statistical methods that allow several factors across
levels to be evaluated simultaneously.
Environmental Factors
Researchers have examined environmental factors associated with physical activity by
including the relationship between residence (on/off campus), distance of residence from campus
recreation centers, and level of physical activity (Allen & Ross, 2013; Castle, Alman II,
Kostelnik, & Smith, 2015; Essiet, Baharom, Shahar, & Uzochukwu, 2017; Miller et al., 2008;
Reed & Phillips, 2005; Staten, Miller, Noland, & Rayens, 2005; Watson, Ayers, Zizzi, & Naoi,
2006; Yoon et al., 2014). Students who lived on-campus or within one mile of the campus
recreation facility were more likely to use the facility compared to those who lived off-campus or
over one mile away (Castle et al., 2015; Watson et al., 2006) and typically report higher levels of
physical activity compared to those who live off campus or further away (Miller et al., 2008;
Staten et al., 2005; Yoon et al., 2014). In a random sample of 899 undergraduate students, those
who lived on campus were 44% (OR=1.44) more likely to use the facility compared to those who
lived off campus (Miller et al., 2008). In short, students living on campus tend to engage in
higher levels of physical activity compared to those living off-campus.
Environmental factors, such as location of residence (e.g. on-campus), are not only
positively associated with physical activity, but have also been associated with increased alcohol
consumption in college students (Castle et al., 2015; Staten et al., 2005; Yoon et al., 2014).
Environmental factors can contribute to first year students beginning to binge drink (e.g. 5 or
more drinks for males) in college. Weitzman and colleagues (2003) used national data to
determine factors associated with binge drinking in freshman students. They found that first year
students who lived in coed on-campus (OR=1.90) or Greek housing (OR=2.85) were
significantly more likely to begin binge drinking compared to students who lived off-campus
A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
6
with a roommate (OR=.82) or with parents (OR=.40). Similarly, in another study, the authors
reported female students who lived on-campus consumed more alcoholic beverages than female
students who lived off-campus (Yoon et al., 2014).
In line with the socioecological framework, community and individual level factors such
as transportation, self-efficacy and motivation may also play an important role in determining
physical activity behavior. For example, in a study with college students in Ireland, Murphy and
colleagues (2019) found that students who had a longer travel time (lived 10 minutes further
from their university) were less likely to be classified as active commuters (OR=.59), participate
in physical activity only at the university (OR=.80), or fall in the high physically active cluster
(OR=.58). At the same time, an increase in motivation (e.g. feeling motivated to be physically
active) increased the likelihood that students would participate in physical activity only at the
university (OR=1.13) or be placed in the high active cluster (OR=1.27). In other words, for every
one unit increase on the Likert scale in motivation, students were 27% more likely to be
classified in the high active cluster. This may be especially important given the negative
relationship between living further from campus and physical activity. Therefore, in addition to
modes of transportation, motivation may be an important intrapersonal factor that can influence
behavior in conjunction with environmental factors.
Individual Factors
Researchers have reported that motivation may facilitate beneficial beliefs about physical
activity and lead to sustained behavior in college students (Kilpatrick et al., 2003; Watson et al.,
2006; Zizzi et al., 2006). Achievement goal theory describes how individuals define success in
specific achievement contexts, such as exercise, and thus how they are motivated to reach their
goals (Nicholls, 1989; Roberts et al., 1998). In achievement goal theory, achievement goals
aren’t just targets, rather, they represent an orientation toward tasks that include associated views
A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
7
about success, effort, ability, and purpose (Pintrich, 2000). Specifically, task-oriented motivation
(success occurs with learning and mastery) was positively associated with exercise intensity,
years exercising, and exercise enjoyment. On the other hand, ego orientation (success is defined
through comparison to others or some standard) was not significantly correlated to these
constructs (Kilpatrick et al., 2003).
Moreover, research shows that as college students transition toward maintenance (i.e.,
sustain recommended guidelines of 150 minutes of physical activity for more than 6 months) of
physical activity, level of task focus continues or increases, while reliance on ego reference cues
decreases (Zizzi et al., 2006). In a study involving 569 college students, Zizzi et al. (2006) found
that, students who exercised regularly were more likely to be in the high task/high ego group
than the low task/low ego group. Additionally, task orientation has been associated with the
belief that success was related to effort, interest, and adaptive achievement strategies (Biddle et
al., 2003; Duda & Nicholls, 1992). Thus, a task involvement may yield sustained effort, more
adaptive behaviors, and persistence in physical activity engagement compared to ego
involvement, which has been a consistent finding in the literature (Biddle et al., 2003; Duda,
1989; Duda & Nicholls, 1992; Kilpatrick et al., 2003).
In addition to motivation, self-efficacy is often found to be related to level of physical
activity (Maselli et al., 2018; Young et al., 2014). Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s belief in
their ability to take the actions necessary to cope with a situation or achieve a desired outcome
(Bandura, 1982) and has been associated with increased physical activity in college students
(Shaikh et al., 2018). Specifically, these researchers observed that exercise self-efficacy was
positively associated with days of strenuous physical activity.
Two factors that may influence an individual’s self-efficacy and level of physical activity
are perceived benefits and barriers (Bandura, 1982; Grubbs & Carter, 2002; Horacek et al., 2018;
A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
8
King et al., 2014). Common benefits of physical activity reported by college students include
improved physical appearance, physical fitness, and health (Grubbs & Carter, 2002; King et al.,
2014). College students also face a number of barriers to physical activity such as lack of
knowledge, self-efficacy, time, and resources (Sukys et al., 2019). In a sample of 480 college
students, King and colleagues (2014) noted that perceived benefits were positively associated
with vigorous physical activity, while perceived barriers were negatively associated with
vigorous physical activity. However, other researchers have suggested that the impact of
perceived barriers outweighs the impact of perceived benefits on physical activity (Hurley et al.,
2018). Thus, further investigation is needed to clarify the role of perceived benefits and barriers
in determining physical activity behavior.
Although previous research has established the relationship between psychological and
environmental factors and physical activity, they have traditionally focused on these factors
separately from each other and/or have not used path analysis to develop a model of these
factors. Thus, the purpose of the current study is to utilize a socioecological framework to
investigate the relationship between environmental and psychological correlates of physical
activity. More specifically, we will examine how achievement goal orientation, perceived
barriers, perceived benefits, self-efficacy, on-campus residence, transportation, and binge
drinking are related to physical activity. A secondary purpose is to explore the interactions
between achievement goal orientation and barrier self-efficacy, as well as the interactions
between on-campus residence, transportation, and binge drinking. Figure 1 represents a diagram
of the proposed model.
Perceived benefits, barriers, and self-efficacy are associated with physical activity
behavior (Grubbs & Carter, 2002; King et al., 2014; Maselli et al., 2018; Shaikh et al., 2018).
Individuals with a high task orientation may persist in the face of challenges and barriers to
A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
9
physical activity (Biddle et al., 2003; Kilpatrick et al., 2003). Thus, the relationship between
achievement orientation and physical activity may be mediated by perceived barriers and
benefits. Previous researchers have established a positive association between living on-campus,
alcohol consumption, and physical activity, as well as between alcohol consumption and physical
activity (Castle et al., 2015; Graupensperger et al., 2018). Thus, it was hypothesized that alcohol
consumption and transportation would mediate the relationship between living on-campus and
physical activity. In summary:
Task and ego motivations were proposed to be negatively associated with perceived barriers
and positively associated with perceived benefits
Task and ego motivations were proposed to be positively associated with physical activity
Location of residence was proposed to be positively associated with alcohol consumption,
use of public and active transportation, and physical activity
Self-efficacy, alcohol consumption, and use of active and public transportation were
proposed to be positively associated with physical activity engagement
Self-efficacy was expected to mediate the relationship between perceived barriers, perceived
benefits, and physical activity
Alcohol consumption and transportation were expected to mediate the relationship between
location of residence and physical activity
Methods
Research Design
The present study completed a secondary analysis of data collected via a cross sectional
survey. Self-reported data were collected from 629 university students. The research design was
quantitative and correlational in nature.
A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
10
Instruments
The present survey was a modified version of a previously published survey that was
used with similar populations (Zizzi et al., 2004, 2006). The final survey included a total of 96
questions that assessed residence (on or off-campus), transportation, physical activity, forms of
exercise, barriers to exercise, confidence, support, primary reason for campus recreation facility
use, desired facility improvements, goal orientation, alcohol use, and demographic information.
During survey development, input was sought from experts in the field as well as staff from the
university’s Student Recreation Center’s Wellness staff on several items.
Achievement goal orientation. Achievement goal orientation refers to how an individual
defines personal success in specific achievement contexts and thus their motivation to reach their
goal success (Nicholls, 1989; Roberts et al., 1998). The Perception of Success Questionnaire for
Exercise (POSQ-E; Zizzi et al., 2006) was used to measure goal orientation. The POSQ-E
consists of 11-items (6 task orientation and 5 ego orientation) measured on a 4-point Likert type
scale. The items are averaged to determine task and ego orientation. The higher the score on the
task orientation subscale, the more the individual defines their success by personal mastery and
improvement. The higher the score on the ego orientation subscale, the more the individual
defines their success as outperforming others or some standard. A sentence stem of “When
exercising, I feel most successful when…” was used for each item in the POSQ-E (Zizzi et al.,
2006). In previous research the two subscales of the POSQ-E combined to explain approximately
65% of variance and had good internal reliability with alpha values of .87 (task) and .88 (ego).
The questionnaire has also demonstrated convergent validity with stages of change for exercise
participation and factor validity. Average item response was used for each subscale, task and
ego.
A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
11
Binge drinking. Binge drinking is defined as the consumption of 5 or more alcoholic
beverages for males, (4 or more for females) in one sitting (ACHA, 2014). Similarly, the
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration states that binge drinking occurs on
one occasion or over the course of a couple of hours (National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and
Alcoholism, 2017). An alcoholic drink was defined for the participants as 12 ounces of beer, 5
ounces of wine, or 1.25 ounces of hard alcohol. The questionnaire contained four items modeled
after the ACHA (2014) questions (last 30 days) and the definition of binge drinking. A binary
(yes/no) question was used to assess if the participants consumed alcohol in the past 30 days. For
the purpose of this study, binge drinking was assessed by asking how many times they consumed
5 or more drinks (4 drinks for females) in one sitting over the past two weeks. The number of
hours for “one sitting” was not defined for participants.
Physical activity. Physical activity can be defined as any physical movement that leads
to an increase in energy output (R. E. Rhodes et al., 2017). Examples and definitions for
moderate (brisk walking, gardening, activities that cause small increases in breathing or heart
rate) and vigorous (running, aerobics, activities that cause large increases in your breathing or
heart rate) physical activity were provided for participants. Physical activity was measured with
modified questions from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System Survey Questionnaire
(CDC, 2014). These questions included the number of days they engage in physical activity
(moderate or vigorous) for at least 10 minutes and on those days, the time in minutes spent per
day engaging in moderate or vigorous activity. Number of days of physical activity was
multiplied by minutes to determine weekly minutes of physical activity. Weekly minutes of
physical activity was rescaled (divided by 100) prior to running path analysis.
Barriers to physical activity. Participants were asked how often different barriers
interfere with or prevent them from exercising. Perceived barriers to physical activity were
A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
12
assessed using a 4-point Likert type scale (1-Never to 4-Frequently). Barriers included not
having time, feeling self-conscious, and fear of injury. Similar barriers and approaches to the
measurement of physical activity have been cited in previous research involving college students
(Ball et al., 2018; Bray, 2007; Gyurcsik et al., 2004; Sukys et al., 2019). Item responses were
summed for total perceived barriers to physical activity.
Benefits of physical activity. Perceived benefits for physical activity refer to potential
improvements or gains that will occur through engagement in physical activity (Brown, 2005).
Participants responded to a question that asked them to rate how important different factors were
in their decision to engage or not engage in physical activity. Potential benefits included, more
energy, feeling less stressed, increased confidence, and improved sleep among others. Students
responded on a scale from “Not at all important (1)” to “Extremely important (4)”. Item
responses were summed to create total perceived benefits of physical activity.
Self-efficacy. Self-efficacy, or an individual’s confidence in their ability to begin or
maintain physical activity was assessed with a single question. Respondents were asked “How
sure or confident are you that you can start or continue to exercise for at least 30 minutes per day
at least 5 days per week?”. They responded using a 4-point Likert type scale of very unsure to
very sure. Responses of 1, 2, or 3 were coded as a ‘0’ for lower self-efficacy and responses of 4
were coded as a ‘1’ for high self-efficacy for physical activity.
Mode of transportation. Transportation was assessed with a single question. Students
were asked “What method of transportation do you use the most to get around town?”. Response
options included: walk, bike, my car, various forms of public transportation, and other. The other
option included space to fill in an unlisted mode of transportation. The response options were
dummy coded. Walk and bike were combined to form the ‘Active Transportation’ group. The
“my car” response served as the reference group.
A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
13
On-campus residence. A single binary question was used to assess whether the
respondent lived on or off-campus.
Greek life affiliation. Membership in a fraternity or sorority was assessed with a single
yes or no question.
Gender. Gender was assessed with a single question. Students were asked their gender
and to select either “male” or “female”.
Class standing. Class standing refers to academic class level. Participants were asked to
select their class standing. Options included first year student, sophomore, junior, senior
(including 5th year), and graduate or professional.
Data Analysis
Descriptive statistics, including mean and standard deviation, and bivariate correlations
were calculated. Path analysis was used to test the hypothesized model (Figure 1) in SAS v. 9.4
(Cary, NC, 2015). Due to missing data, Full Information Maximum Likelihood (FIML) was used
for model estimation. The data set was checked for multicollinearity, outliers, and normality.
Path analysis was chosen to examine the directionality of the relationships between the
variables. Root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), standardized root mean square
residual (SRMR), comparative fit index (CFI), and χ2 were all used to assess model fit. RMSEA
values less than .08, SRMR values less than .05, CFI values approaching or exceeding .95, and a
nonsignificant χ2 were used to identify acceptable fit (Hooper et al., 2008; Hu & Bentler, 1999;
Weston & Gore, 2006). A model with acceptable fit means the proposed model was supported.
The model controlled for multiple variables, including membership in a Greek organization,
gender, and class standing.
Data Cleaning
A MODEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
14
A total of 629 students responded to the study. However, there were 59 respondents who
opened the survey and didn’t respond to any questions. There were 10 respondents found to be
outliers for weekly minutes of physical activity with values greater than 871 minutes (3 standard
deviations plus the mean). These cases were removed. Analysis were run to check for the
assumptions of homoscedasticity, multicollinearity, and normality. Multicollinearity was not
present with Tolerance less than 1 (.62 to .85) and VIF values below 10 (1.17 to 1.61).
Results
Participants were enrolled as full- or part-time students at a midsize mid-Atlantic
university. According to university records, the institution the sample was drawn from was
48.96% female and 80.34% Caucasian/White. The majority of respondents in the current sample
were female (n=330), Caucasian/White (n=423), and lived off-campus (n=365). The participants
were distributed across undergraduate (Freshman, Sophomore, Junior, Senior) and graduate class
standings. A small percentage of the sample were involved in club (n=40) or intramural sports
(n=52). The majority of respondents participated in sports while attending high school for at least
one season (n=405). Many students reported free access to a fitness facility in their residence hall
or housing complex (n= 295). The sample was relatively active as 48.86% met or exceeded 180
minutes of physical activity per week. On average, respondents lived nearly 14 minutes from the
campus recreation center (M=13.73, SD=9.41). Table 1 contains additional sample frequencies.
Descriptive statistics and correlations were calculated for the weekly minutes of physical
activity (MVPA; M=233.75, SD=162.23), perceived barriers (barriers; M=25.44, SD=6.18),
binge drinking behavior (binge; M=1.84, SD=2.18), and average responses for each achievement
goal orientation subscale (task: M=3.45, SD=.54; ego: M=2.24, SD=.77), among other variables.
Means and standard deviations are presented in Table 2. Physical activity was positively
correlated with binge drinking (r=.168, p
Exploring the Relationship Between Hardiness and Performance : Exploring the Relationship Between Hardiness and Performance
in Collegiate Baseball Players
Kevin R. Lou
West Virginia University, krl0018@mix.wvu.edu
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Part of the Personality and Social Contexts Commons, and the Sports Studies Commons
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Lou, Kevin R., "Exploring the Relationship Between Hardiness and Performance in Collegiate Baseball
Players" (2020). Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports. 7972.
https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd/7972
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Exploring the Relationship Between Hardiness and Performance in Collegiate Baseball Players
Kevin R. Lou, B.S., B.A.
Thesis submitted
to the College of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences
at West Virginia University
Department of Sport Sciences
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Science in
Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology
Scott Barnicle, Ph.D., Chair
Samuel Zizzi, Ed.D.
Justin Barnes, Ph.D.
Department of Sport Sciences
Morgantown, West Virginia
2020
Keywords: Hardiness, Personality, Objective Performance, Collegiate Baseball, Quantitative
Copyright 2020 Kevin Lou
Abstract
Exploring the Relationship Between Hardiness and Performance in College Baseball
Players
Kevin Lou
The purpose of this study was to explore the influence of the individual personality characteristic
of hardiness on trait anxiety and objective performance within NCAA Division I collegiate
baseball players. An updated version of the PVS III-R was used to measure hardiness after a
confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted. Of the total 389 players that participated, 171
met inclusion criteria requirements and were split into two groups – hitters (N=94) and pitchers
(N=80) – to identify differences in skills and how sub-constructs of hardiness affected
performance through a descriptive correlational prospective design. The results show significant
moderating effects of commitment for pitchers that accounted for the majority of variance in the
relationship between perception of trait anxiety intensity and left on base percentage (LOB%)
and wild pitches (WP). For hitters, significant moderating effects of control accounted for less
variance in the relationship between perception of trait anxiety intensity on batting average on
balls in play (BABIP) and double plays grounded into (GDP). The findings indicate there may be
situational significance of hardiness’ moderating effect on the relationship between trait anxiety
and objective performance that may not be present until runners are on base. Practitioners could
use these findings to target mental skills that could build up a pitcher’s commitment or hitter’s
sense of control to moderate their performance within certain situations within collegiate
baseball settings. Future studies could aim to replicate this study under normal NCAA collegiate
baseball seasons when possible to corroborate situational findings and the utilization of updated
PVS III-R scale.
Keywords: Hardiness, personality, objective performance, baseball, quantitative
EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE iii
Table of Contents
Exploring the Relationship Between Hardiness and Performance in College Baseball Players .... 1
Hardiness ..................................................................................................................................... 3
Method ............................................................................................................................................ 7
Participants .................................................................................................................................. 7
Inclusion Criteria ..................................................................................................................... 8
Recruitment ............................................................................................................................. 9
Design and Procedures ................................................................................................................ 9
Measures.................................................................................................................................... 10
Hardiness ............................................................................................................................... 10
Trait Anxiety.......................................................................................................................... 11
Demographics ........................................................................................................................ 11
Objective Performance Baseball Statistics ............................................................................ 12
Data Analyses ............................................................................................................................ 13
Results ........................................................................................................................................... 14
Primary Analyses ...................................................................................................................... 14
Secondary Analyses .................................................................................................................. 14
Pitching Group ....................................................................................................................... 14
Wild Pitches (WP). ............................................................................................................ 15
Left On-Base Percentage (LOB%). ................................................................................... 16
Fielding Independent Pitching (FIP). ................................................................................. 17
Hitting Group ......................................................................................................................... 18
Batting Average on Balls In Play (BABIP). ...................................................................... 18
Grounding into Double Plays (GDP). ................................................................................ 19
Weighted On-Base Average (wOBA). .............................................................................. 19
Discussion ..................................................................................................................................... 20
Pitching Group Interpretations .................................................................................................. 20
Hitting Group Interpretations .................................................................................................... 22
Practical Applications ............................................................................................................... 24
Limitations ................................................................................................................................ 27
Future Research ......................................................................................................................... 29
EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE iv
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 31
References ..................................................................................................................................... 33
Tables ............................................................................................................................................ 44
Figures........................................................................................................................................... 53
Appendix A: List of Hitting and Pitching Statistics and Formulas .............................................. 55
Appendix B: Hardiness Questionnaire – PVS III-R ..................................................................... 57
Appendix C: Confirmatory Factor Analyses Procedure for Updated PVS III-R Scale ................ 58
Appendix D: Competitive Trait Anxiety Questionnaire – CTAI-2 .............................................. 61
Appendix E: Demographic Questionnaire .................................................................................... 63
Appendix F: Extended Review of the Literature .......................................................................... 64
Individual Personality Characteristics Related to Competitiveness .......................................... 65
Hardiness ............................................................................................................................... 67
Hardiness Instruments. ....................................................................................................... 68
Hardiness Studies and Findings. ........................................................................................ 70
Mental Toughness.................................................................................................................. 78
Mental Toughness Instruments. ......................................................................................... 78
Mental Toughness Studies and Findings. .......................................................................... 79
Resilience............................................................................................................................... 82
Resilience Instruments. ...................................................................................................... 82
Resilience Studies and Findings. ....................................................................................... 84
Grit ......................................................................................................................................... 86
Grit Instruments. ................................................................................................................ 86
Grit Studies and Findings................................................................................................... 87
Summary of Competitiveness Characteristics........................................................................... 90
Individual Competitiveness Characteristics and Objective Performance in Sport Settings ...... 93
Future Research Directions ....................................................................................................... 98
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 101
EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE
1
Exploring the Relationship Between Hardiness and Performance in College Baseball Players
In the 1950s and 60s, sport personality was a widely popular field that captured
researchers’ curiosities with the idea that specific personality profiles could predict successful
athletic performance (Allen et al., 2013). Early researchers used inventories such as the Eysenck
Personality Inventory (EPI; Eysenck & Eysenck, 1964) or the 16 Personality Factor (16PF)
questionnaire developed by Cattell (1965) to attempt to predict personality profiles. Eventually,
the field turned to the NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI), developed by McCrae and Costa
(1985) that combined elements of both the previous works of Cattell and Eysenck. The NEO PI
measured five traits of personality, otherwise known by the acronym OCEAN, including
openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Despite the NEO PI’s
improvements upon the 16 PF and EPI, sport personality researchers still were not able to
identify specific trait profiles that would determine future athletic performance.
Steady research continued through the mid-1980s when researchers realized that despite
the abundance of studies which had investigated sport personality, there were no clear patterns of
trait profiles that existed to predict performance (Morris, 2011). Some reasons for these
inconclusive patterns could be explained by the limitations of global personality measures,
restrictions of personality traits across temporal settings, and/or a reliance on personality profiles
as a predictor of sport performance (Allen et al., 2017). However, after a twenty-year hiatus,
sport-personality researchers have recently resumed interest in the field with a different approach
that focuses on individual personality characteristics and singular trait-type personality rather
than a full profile of traits (Roberts & Woodman, 2017). One example of an individual
personality characteristic that has gained support in the research is hardiness (Morris, 2011),
while other characteristics such as trait anxiety (Spielberger, 1985) have increased in research
interest as well.
EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE
2
The revival of research within the sport personality field emphasizing individual
personality characteristics demonstrates the still tantalizing possibility of forecasting athletic
performance. Although the efforts to define specific personality traits across a generalized
population have been inconclusive so far (Morris, 2011), the continued research in this field
could yield athletes, coaches, and consultants valuable information. Furthermore, certain
individual personality characteristics such as hardiness have found to be dynamic and malleable
over time (McAdams & Olson, 2010) and if practitioners could understand how to foster specific
personality characteristics, then there may be significant advantages to be gained in performance
(Roberts & Woodman, 2017). For example, similarly to hardiness, trait anxiety helps influence
appraisal and coping mechanisms and previous researchers have found that positively
interpreting anxiety as facilitative can help athletes perform under pressure (Hanton &
Connaughton, 2002; Wadey & Hanton, 2008). Future sport-personality research could help
practitioners understand and tailor individual interventions and practices to each player to
encourage an athlete’s development (Allen & Laborde, 2014) and facilitate their athletic
performance.
In previous studies, conscientiousness had been linked to successful performance in
collegiate athletes (Piedmont et al., 1999). Other researchers, such as Laborde et al. (2019),
further examined this link in a recent mapping review by using a thematic analysis to map
individual personality traits for sport performance onto its closest facet from the Big Five NEO.
The 30 NEO-PI-R was used as a foundational framework because it captured fundamental
components of human personality. One of the higher-order themes that the researchers identified
was competitiveness. Within competitiveness, the thematic analysis used by the researchers
identified grit, mental toughness, resilience, and hardiness as traits related to competitiveness.
EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE
3
These traits were all linked to the Big-Five trait of conscientiousness (Laborde et al., 2019).
While conscientiousness has been previously linked to successful performance, the relationship
between athletic performance and these four traits is unclear and necessitates more research
support to help forecast future performance.
Among the traits within the higher-order theme of competitiveness, grit, mental
toughness, resilience, and hardiness may seem very similar and difficult to differentiate between
(Price, 2019). However, researchers have faced difficulties conceptualizing the definitional
construct of mental toughness (Gucciardi, 2017), have been limited by the narrow construct of
resilience (Martin et al., 2015; Reivich et al., 2011), and have not been certain about grit and
possible misinterpretations of statistical significance during initial studies (Crede et al., 2017).
Therefore, hardiness may be the most viable construct of the four competitiveness constructs
within the higher-order theme to be linked to athletic performance.
Hardiness
The construct of hardiness has come into focus for researchers as it meets the criteria for
a personality characteristic of having both a theoretical base and allowing for developmental
research (Morris, 2011). A theoretical basis of hardiness was developed by Kobasa (1979) in a
landmark study where researchers investigated hardiness as a factor of whether employees of a
telephone business company facing high levels of stress would fall ill. Those who reported high
levels of stress and low levels of illness also reported higher levels of hardiness and had a
stronger commitment to themselves, an attitude of commitment toward the environment, and an
internal locus of control (Kobasa, 1979). Hardiness was thus defined by the three key factors of
challenge, control, and commitment. Kobasa (1979) defined commitment as the willingness to
engage oneself fully in whatever one is doing, control as the ability to influence the events of
EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE
4
their experience, and challenge as the idea that change is exciting and essential to further
development.
Among studies conducted on hardiness since Kobasa’s work, extant research (Eschleman
et al., 2010; Florian et al., 1995) has examined hardiness’ influence in a range of sport and non
sport populations. The importance and potential of hardiness can be summed up in a meta
analytic study that included 180 studies investigating hardiness’ antecedents and consequences
across all domains. One finding from the study included that hardiness was positively correlated
with job performance (r=.17, ρ=.26, k =5, N=676) and school performance (r = .21, ρ=.23, k=3,
N=623). Eschleman et al. (2010) concluded that hardiness is one of the better predictors of well
being in general populations compared to other health-oriented dispositions, such as self-esteem
or locus of control. Specifically, in non-sport settings such as with military training, researchers
have examined the influence of hardiness as a psychological resource in Israeli Defense Forces
recruits (Florian et al., 1995). Researchers found that hardiness components helped individuals
appraise combat training as less threatening, feel more capable of coping, and use more coping
strategies. Commitment was positively associated with secondary appraisal (r=.33), inversely
related to threat appraisal (r=-.31), and the use of distancing (r=-.16) and emotion-focused
coping (r=-.30). Also, patterns of appraisal and coping related to higher levels of hardiness and
led to better mental health. Researchers in non-sport settings have demonstrated hardiness’
importance related to overall well-being and coping with stressful situations in military settings.
The ability to improve hardiness to deal with stress and anxiety in the military could be related to
similar situations found in sporting contexts.
One way that hardiness has been explored within sport is its influence on sport injury.
Wadey et al. (2012) monitored 694 participants over the span of two years to observe injury
EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE
5
occurrences. Researchers found that hardiness inversely correlated with injury occurrence,
specifically as a participant’s hardiness score increases, their risk of injury decreases (Wald
test=32.922, p 0.05, 95% CI [-0.001, 0.004] and self-confidence intensity, β =
0.001, SE = 0.001, t = 0.96, p > 0.05, 95% CI [-0.001, 0.002] were both not significantly
moderated by control. However, somatic anxiety intensity, β = 0.003, SE = 0.001, t = 2.15, p <
0.05, 95% CI [0.00, 0.006] was significantly moderated by control on somatic anxiety intensity’s
effect on a hitter’s BABIP. Similar to batting average, higher BABIPs would indicate better
objective performance for hitters. The Johnson-Neyman technique indicated that for hitters with
scores below 5.50 - or below the 44th percentile - on control, a significant inverse relationship
was found between hitter’s somatic anxiety intensity and BABIP for hitters scoring lower on
control, β = -0.004, SE = 0.002, t = -1.99, p < 0.05, 95% CI [-0.09, 0.00]. These findings indicate
that hitters with lower levels of control had lower BABIPs when perceiving high intensities of
their somatic anxiety. Control explained half of the variance in the relationship between somatic
anxiety intensity and BABIP (R2 = 0.09, ΔR2= 0.05), but minimally for cognitive anxiety
intensity (R2 = 0.05, ΔR2= 0.01) and self-confidence intensity (R2 = 0.04, ΔR2= 0.01).
EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE
19
Grounding into Double Plays (GDP). For number of double plays grounded into,
cognitive anxiety intensity, β = -0.004, SE = 0.01, t = -0.36, p > 0.05, 95% CI [-0.03, .02] and
somatic anxiety intensity, β = -0.02, SE = 0.01, t = -1.07, p > 0.05, 95% CI [-0.04, 0.01] were
both not significantly moderated by control. However, self-confidence intensity, β = -0.01, SE =
0.007, t = -2.16, p < 0.05, 95% CI [-0.03, -0.001] was significantly moderated by control on self
confidence intensity’s effect on the number of double plays grounded into. Hitters ideally would
aim to avoid hitting into double plays and grounding into less double plays would represent a
better hitter’s performance. The Johnson-Neyman technique indicated that for hitters with scores
above 5.93 - or above the 43rd percentile - on control, a significant inverse relationship was found
between hitter’s self-confidence intensity and number of double plays grounded into for hitters
scoring high on control, β = -0.03, SE = 0.01, t = -1.99, p < 0.05, 95% CI [-0.05, 0.00]. These
findings indicate that hitters with higher levels of control grounded into less double plays when
perceiving high intensities of their self-confidence. Control explained one-quarter of the variance
in the relationship between self-confidence intensity and number of double plays grounded into
(R2 = 0.16, ΔR2= 0.04), but minimally for cognitive anxiety intensity (R2 = 0.08, ΔR2= 0.001)
and somatic anxiety intensity (R2 = 0.09, ΔR2= 0.01) and number of double plays grounded into.
Weighted On-Base Average (wOBA). For wOBA, cognitive anxiety intensity, β =
0.000, SE = 0.001, t = 0.24, p > 0.05, 95% CI [-0.002, 0.003], somatic anxiety intensity, β =
0.002, SE = 0.001, t = 1.31, p > 0.05, 95% CI [-0.001, 0.005], and self-confidence intensity, β =
0.001, SE = 0.001, t = 1.66, p > 0.05, 95% CI [0.000, 0.003] were all not significantly moderated
by commitment. While batting average weighs all hits the same, wOBA weights home runs
higher than singles and higher wOBA indicate better hitter performance. Control explained
approximately one-third of the variance in the relationship between somatic anxiety intensity (R2
EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE
20
= 0.06, ΔR2= 0.02) and self-confidence intensity and wOBA (R2 = 0.08, ΔR2= 0.03), but
minimally for cognitive anxiety intensity and wOBA (R2 = 0.04, ΔR2= 0.001).
Discussion
While there have been a several studies that have examined the effect of competitive
anxiety on sport performance (Lagos, 2008) and baseball specifically (Chang & Torres, 2019;
Chen et al., 2019; Han, 2014; Strack, 2003), very few studies have examined the influence of
personality and specifically hardiness on a player’s ability to perform in the presence of
competitive anxiety in baseball. The current study provides contributions to further understand
the influence of hardiness on objective performance statistics in the presence of competitive
anxiety intensity within a collegiate baseball setting. This study also found similar objective
performance results to previous correlational investigations found in the Zizzi et al. (2003) study.
Pitching Group Interpretations
It is important to interpret the results of this study within the context that each objective
performance baseball statistics indicates. Among the moderating effects for pitchers, both
statistically significant effects suggest that there were situational or contextual effects of
commitment which may help a pitcher’s performance when perceiving high intensities of trait
anxiety. Both left on base percentage and wild pitches are statistics that require the presence of
runners on base and typically are considered to be higher stress or anxiety-provoking situations
during games (Chang & Torres, 2019). Pitchers even change their stance on the mound from a
windup position to a stretch position that is quicker and combats the likelihood or ability of a
runner to steal a base against that pitcher. Pitchers may perceive their anxiety to be more intense
during these situations and the data suggested that commitment moderated the effect of a
pitcher’s perception of the intensity of anxiety and led to less wild pitches and higher left on-base
EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE
21
percentages. These effects were not found to be the case for fielding independent pitching. These
results may indicate a more situational or state-like effect of the moderating effect of
commitment on a pitcher’s objective performance. As recommended by a researcher via
interview from a previous study (Zizzi et al., 2003), a useful area of future focus was situational
effects that allowed pitchers to reflect on their own internal state and how it affects their
performance. The results of this study seem to corroborate the situational moderating effects of
commitment on a pitcher’s ability to throw fewer wild pitches and leave runners on base
compared to fielding independent pitching, which is not as situational. Practitioners could use
these findings to focus their interventions to improve a pitcher’s commitment during specific
situations within baseball that might lead to higher anxiety moments to help pitchers increase
their performance.
The coefficients of determination (R2) for this groups’ moderation analyses indicate the
amount of variance accounted for in pitching performance by trait anxiety intensity. For both left
on-base percentage and wild pitches, the amount of R2 change that was accounted for by the
moderating variable of commitment was at least half and in the case of left on-base percentage,
commitment accounted for the majority of the variance between the relationship between trait
anxiety and left on-base percentage. Although the overall R2 may be considered small, at higher
levels of competitive sport, physical abilities become more comparable and small increases in
mental skills or personality could lead to larger influences in performance outcomes (Zizzi et al.,
2003). The R2 change values for both situational statistics of wild pitches and left on base
percentage suggest that a large amount of variance on a pitcher’s performance during on-base
situations could be influenced by a pitcher’s higher level of commitment with runners on base in
the presence of trait anxiety. Especially in regard to LOB%, the majority of variance accounted
EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE
22
for by commitment suggests that improving a pitcher’s level of commitment could account for
the majority of improvement in a pitcher’s LOB% and could be a focus for practitioners.
Hitting Group Interpretations
In comparison to the pitcher group findings, the hitter group moderation analyses of the
subscale of control were mostly non-significant with the exception of one situational statistic and
one non-situational statistic. These findings are particularly interesting as one significant finding
was related to self-confidence while the other was somatic anxiety. In a previous study
conducted by Davis and Sime (2005) within baseball, the researchers recommended sport
psychologists to focus on improving self-confidence rather than reducing anxiety to help
performance. However, if practitioners wanted to help baseball players address their anxiety, the
findings in this study seem to provide some evidence that this could be done through
development of their personality and particular subscales of hardiness. The findings indicate that
practitioners could both try to improve self-confidence and address anxiety through improvement
of control while for pitchers reduction of anxiety could be achieved through improvement of
commitment to increase performance. Different positions require different skills from players
and the findings allow practitioners to potentially target these differences in multiple ways.
Similar to wild pitches for pitchers, grounding into double plays for hitters require
runners on base and is also considered a negative performance statistic. Typically, grounding
into double plays is not seen to be in the control of a hitter as various factors by the opposing
team or umpire could affect whether the hitter actually hits into a double play and require that
there are fewer than two outs as well (Slowinksi, 2010). GDP situations may elicit higher
feelings of self-confidence as there is a runner on base that makes it easier for the hitter to score
the runner on base to help the team rather than having to a hit a home run on their own (George,
EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE
23
1994). As a situational statistic, the results from this study indicate that hitters who believe these
situations with runners on base are more in their control and perceive high levels of self
confidence will ground into fewer double plays and therefore allow their team to continue to hit.
Unfortunately, this statistic does not give any insight to what type of other results the hitter may
have hit into such as a home run or fly-out to right field. It does suggest that high intensities of
self-confidence paired with high levels of control could lead to less double plays grounded into
which would allow the team more opportunities to continue hitting and score runs.
The non-situational statistic that was found to be significant was a hitters’ batting average
on balls in play (BABIP) which has been discussed to be more in control of a hitter than a pitcher
(Slowinski, 2010). It is understood that a hitter has control over how often they decide to put the
ball in play and how hard they hit it, but not if it actually ends up being a hit due to the defense
or luck. When considering the results in this study, it was demonstrated that when hitters had
lower feelings of control, they had lower BABIPs and higher perceptions of their somatic
anxiety. Practitioners and consultants in applied sport and exercise psychology may explore
ways to increase a hitter’s perception of the situation being within their control through cognitive
re-appraisal (De Castella et al., 2013). This may help increase hitter’s BABIP when they
perceive their somatic anxiety to be high which corroborates results found in a previous study
exploring competitive anxiety in baseball players (Strack, 2003). There were no significant
differences found for weighted on base average perhaps indicating that hitters do not have much
control over their weighted on-base percentage which includes contributions out of their control
like being hit by pitches or walks.
The coefficients of determination (R2) for this groups’ moderation analyses indicate the
amount of variance accounted for in hitting performance by trait anxiety intensity. For the
EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE
24
majority of moderation relationships, the amount of R2 that was accounted for by the moderating
effect of control was very small. However, the relationship between somatic anxiety intensity
and BABIP was accounted for by the moderating variable of control was over half. In the
relationship between self-confidence intensity and grounding into double plays, control
accounted for just one-quarter of the variance despite the largest R2 value among hitter group
moderating effects. Although the R2 change values for hitters do not explain for as much or as
many of the trait anxiety variables as pitchers, a situational statistic with runners on base was still
significant moderated by control as well as a non-situational statistic which was not found in
pitchers and corroborates hunches by baseball analysts (Slowinski, 2010).
Practical Applications
A few practical contributions can be taken from this study for consultants or practitioners
when working with baseball players. First, with the findings that pitchers are largely moderated
by their level of commitment during pressure or anxious situations with runners on base,
practitioners could aim to increase a pitcher’s ability to reframe the intensity of the anxiety that is
perceived by focusing on their commitment towards the next pitch. Reminding pitchers that
during situations with runners on base, the data shows that having a higher level of commitment
in the pitches that they are throwing could lead to higher LOB% and less wild pitches even if
they feel a high intensity of cognitive or somatic anxiety or a low feeling of self-confidence.
Using the sub-construct definition of commitment, one’s “ability to persist in whatever one is
doing, even when stress rises to precarious levels” (Kobasa, 1979), practitioners could help
pitchers re-focus their commitment through imagery or breathing when they feel they are in
those situations. As found in a previous study that identified that breathing helped decrease heart
rate variability and improved performance on the golf course (Lagos, 2008), similar focus on the
EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE
25
breath within a batter’s routine could help refocus the pitcher’s sense of commitment. These
situational statistics that were found to be significant in this study could be specific situations
that practitioners focus on with pitches and focus on reframing pitchers to focus on their
commitment instead of the high intensity of their anxiety during those situations. Also, the
results show that regardless of the type of anxiety, commitment explains the majority of
moderating effects which indicates that commitment is the driving force of the improvement in
these situational statistics and provides a practical avenue to address with mental skills.
Hitters do not seem to have as large of a moderating effect in as many situational settings,
but control seems to moderate some overall performance but not to the extent found in pitchers.
This finding corroborates previous conclusions that hitters had less control over their presenting
situation than pitchers did (Zizzi et al., 2003). Also, in a previous study conducted with
professional baseball players in the Korean Baseball Organization, Han et al., (2014) found that
skills such as imagery could provide hitters with a flexible coping method for anxiety and help
with attention shifting and performance enhancement. Parallel to the findings of this study,
practitioners could help hitters reappraise the somatic anxiety intensity that they perceive into
their control and redirect their attention to the task of hitting through imagery could potentially
improve their BABIP. Practitioners could emphasize elements that are within a hitter’s control,
such as choosing certain pitches or locations to swing at when in double play situations.
Additionally, imagery was found to be useful to improve self-confidence within baseball players
and helped improve their performance in a study conducted by Davis and Sime (2005). With the
finding that higher levels of self-confidence help hitters ground into less double plays,
practitioners could work on the cognitive reappraisal (De Castella et al., 2013) of their self
EXPLORING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDINESS AND PERFORMANCE
26
confidence and help hitters practice brief imagery or mental rehearsals to improve their self
confidence.
Practitioners could use the findings of this study to target certain mental skills to help
pitchers improve their commitment and hitters their sense of control. Hardiness and the sub
constructs of challenge, control, commitment seem to lend themselves to mental skills and
overlap with similar constructs taught to help address situational anxiety. Mental skills such as
mindfulness awareness to help identify things that are w
A Phenomenological Photovoice Exploration of Female : A Phenomenological Photovoice Exploration of Female
Exercisers’ Experiences of their Body in Fitness Center
Environments
Katherine E. Fairhurst
West Virginia University, kefairhurst@mix.wvu.edu
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A Phenomenological Photovoice Exploration of Female Exercisers’ Experiences of their Body in
Fitness Center Environments
Katherine E. Fairhurst
Dissertation submitted
to the College of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences
at West Virginia University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctorate of Philosophy in Kinesiology
Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology
Dana Voelker, Ph.D., Chair
Sam Zizzi, Ed.D.
Monica Leppma, Ph.D.
Christy Greenleaf, Ph.D., University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
Department of Sport Sciences
Morgantown, WV
2020
Keywords: Exercise Environment, Physical Activity, Embodiment, Body Image, Qualitative
Copyright 2020 Katherine Fairhurst
ABSTRACT
A Phenomenological Photovoice Exploration of Female Exercisers’ Experiences of their Body in
Fitness Center Environments
Katherine E. Fairhurst
For many women, the relationship with their body and exercise is complex. Exercise can have
positive effects on body image, however, not all women appear to benefit positively from all
types of exercise. To date, body image research has focused on exercise as an activity and less so
on the context in which exercise is performed. Women frequently exercise in fitness centers as
young adults which, unfortunately, is associated with body dissatisfaction. Using an
Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) approach with Photovoice methodology, we
explored young adult women’s lived body experiences while exercising in fitness centers. A
purposive sample of 11 women (Mage= 21.9 years) completed a two-phase study: (1) a two-week
photography period and (2) a 60-90-minute, photo-elicited interview via Skype™. Three
identified themes pertained to the sociocultural fitness setting, participants’ fitness experiences,
and how participants navigated their ‘place’ while exercising in fitness centers. Participants
experienced a segregated fitness center environment driven by gender, the absence of female
representation on machines, and “no place for women” in weightlifting areas. Interestingly, these
negative experiences were buffered by self-compassion-based textual messages on walls and
mirrors and dress codes which encouraged a harmonious relationship with their body while
exercising. In light of these experiences, participants shared negotiating strategies (e.g., seeking
private sub-spaces, challenging gender norms). This study elucidates the complexity of body
experiences for young adult women in fitness settings and informs the development of exercise
spaces that empower women to build a healthy relationship with their body through exercise.
BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS
iii
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my family, friends, and mentors who have helped me through every
hill and valley of this process – my gratitude for your support is endless. I thank Dr. Dana
Voelker for challenging my insecurities, reaffirming my capabilities when my imposter
syndrome reared its ugly head, and her constant reminders to take charge of my process. I am
grateful for her unwavering standard of excellence and I could not be more appreciative of her
guidance. I thank my committee members, Dr. Sam Zizzi who helped me keep healthy
perspective and challenged me in my approach to the research, Dr. Monica Leppma who
reminded me of the importance of self-compassion and self-acceptance, not only in the research
but with myself, and Dr. Christy Greenleaf, who’s early enthusiasm and support for my project
gave me the confidence to jump all in. Thank you to Karly Casanave, a fellow graduate student,
for her commitment and perspective – from the first time she expressed interest in contributing to
this project to the final draft, the quality of the research has been elevated ten-fold because of her
contribution. I would also like to thank Melinda Gallagher and Candice Brown, two research
assistants whose skills far surpassed that of undergraduates – I’m grateful for your passion,
commitment, and hunger to learn. Thank you to my colleagues and peers who read drafts,
provided feedback, gave pep talks, and gave me the space to feel the full range of emotions that
comes with the dissertation process; thank you Carra Johnson, Sofia Espana Perez, Matt
Gonzalez, Adam Hansell, Dr. Robert Hilliard, Dr. Erika Van Dyke, Seth Swary, Bill Way, Dr.
Zenzi Huysmans, Tommy Minkler, and Blake Costalupas.
As a final thank you, I thank my family. My parents, Barry and Lise, they are the
foundation of who I am as a person, woman, helper, and giver. The Garretts, Gary and Melissa,
who stepped in and adopted me into their family, took care of me and loved me when my family
was far away. Shane, who has been by my side through it all. He was a source of unconditional
love and late-night motivational speeches. He believed in me more than I did and made me laugh
Every. Single. Day.
BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS iv
Table of Contents
A Phenomenological Photovoice Exploration of Female Exercisers’ Experiences of their Body in
Fitness Center Environments .......................................................................................................... 1
Methods and Materials ................................................................................................................ 4
Participants .............................................................................................................................. 5
The Interviewer ........................................................................................................................ 6
Procedure ................................................................................................................................. 7
Data Analysis ........................................................................................................................... 9
Trustworthiness ..................................................................................................................... 10
Results and Discussion .............................................................................................................. 12
The Fitness Setting through a Sociocultural Lens ................................................................. 12
The Fitness Experience .......................................................................................................... 15
Navigating Their ‘Place’ ....................................................................................................... 25
Conclusions and Implications ................................................................................................... 30
Appendix A: Extended Introduction ............................................................................................. 41
Basic Assumptions .................................................................................................................... 41
Limitations of the Study ............................................................................................................ 41
Definition of Terms ................................................................................................................... 43
Appendix B: Extended Methods ................................................................................................... 45
Interpretative Phenomenological Study Design ........................................................................ 45
Phenomenology as a theoretical lens ..................................................................................... 45
Hermeneutic phenomenology ................................................................................................ 46
The role of the body in the social world ................................................................................ 47
Phenomenology as a methodology ........................................................................................ 48
Researcher positionality ........................................................................................................ 49
Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis ............................................................................ 51
PhotoVoice approach within phenomenology ....................................................................... 52
Study Setting ............................................................................................................................. 52
Recruitment ............................................................................................................................... 54
Recruitment Flyer ...................................................................................................................... 56
Cover Letter............................................................................................................................... 57
Initial Phone Interview .............................................................................................................. 59
Photography Log Book ............................................................................................................. 63
BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS v
Photo Retrieval Process ............................................................................................................. 64
Skype™ Interview Guide .......................................................................................................... 66
Appendix D: Case Summaries ...................................................................................................... 68
Case Summary: P1 (Sam) ......................................................................................................... 68
Case Summary: P2 (Lex) .......................................................................................................... 72
Case Summary: P3 (Bri) ........................................................................................................... 75
Case Summary: P4 (Emi) .......................................................................................................... 79
Case Summary: P5 (Amy)......................................................................................................... 81
Case Summary: P6 (Ali) ........................................................................................................... 85
Case Summary: P7 (Mya) ......................................................................................................... 88
Case Summary: P8 (Eve) .......................................................................................................... 92
Case Summary: P9 (Zoe) .......................................................................................................... 95
Case Summary: P10 (Ann) ........................................................................................................ 97
Case Summary: P11 (Kay) ........................................................................................................ 99
Appendix D: Extended Literature Review .................................................................................. 102
Body Image ............................................................................................................................. 102
Body Image and Sociocultural Pressures ............................................................................ 104
Body Pressures in Sport ....................................................................................................... 108
Body Pressures in Exercise Contexts .................................................................................. 117
Fitness center environments .................................................................................................... 128
Summary .............................................................................................................................. 131
BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS
1
A Phenomenological Photovoice Exploration of Female Exercisers’ Experiences of their
Body in Fitness Center Environments
Western cultures are preoccupied with the gendered body (i.e., masculinity versus
femininity) and emphasize appearance as a cultural value linked with identity and self-worth (see
Bordo, 2004). Since the 1970s, failure to obtain the socially-constructed body ideal has led to an
increased prevalence of body dissatisfaction, especially among women (Neighbors & Sobal,
2007). Women often attempt to change their body to achieve the feminine standard of thinness
and beauty and, although most women will never achieve the cultural body ideal, many
relentlessly work toward it through unhealthy diets and exercise (Voelker & Reel, 2015).
In general, exercise has well-established physical benefits (e.g., Biddle & Mutrie, 2007),
and enhances a range of psychological factors, including body image (Campbell & Hausenblas,
2009). Body image is a complex, multidimensional, psychological experience of embodiment,
encompassing body-related self-perceptions, thoughts, feelings, and behaviors (Cash, 2004).
Several meta-analyses have explored the effects of exercise on individuals who report body
concerns. For example, Reel and colleagues (2007) found that exercise positively affected body
image for both men and women, with anaerobic exercise (i.e., weight training) generating a
stronger effect than aerobic exercises (i.e., jogging). Similarly, Campbell and Hausenblas (2009)
found a significant effect for exercise on body image with no significant differences across
several moderating factors, including exercise duration or length of intervention. Although
research supports the positive effects of exercise on body image, much of this research focused
primarily on exercise as an activity without accounting for the influence of context, or the
sociocultural setting, in which exercise is performed. Therefore, to fully understand women’s
body image, particularly in relation to exercise, researchers must conceptualize these phenomena
BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS
2
as environmentally-influenced experiences rooted within a rich sociocultural and historical
context (see Cash, 2012).
The evolution of the fitness industry developed from the popularity of bodybuilding in
the 1970’s (Andreasson & Johansson, 2014) and the social movement brought on by men who
stayed home from the Vietnam war (Stern, 2008). Accordingly, fitness centers were established
as places that valued the physical dominance of men (Klein, 1993), and prioritized strength
training. Through the 1980’s, the feminist movement and the rise of women’s sports (Stern,
2008) encouraged women to engage in exercise for diverse, complex, and often paradoxical
reasons. For example, feminist ideology deemed it necessary for women to display physical
strength and independence to be perceived as socially empowered (Gottleib, 1981, as seen in
Stern, 2008). Simultaneously, the body ideal expectations for women reinforced femininity,
sexual attractiveness, and thinness-informed beauty (Silverstein, Peterson, & Perdue, 1986), as
reflected in society’s message: ‘…if you only ate better and worked out more, you would be
prettier and more successful in life and, especially, with men’ (Stern, 2008, p. 9). In turn,
aerobics classes and cardiovascular workouts were recommended as the preferred method of
exercise for women due to their emphasis on weight loss and toning (Stern, 2008). The
popularity of Jane Fonda’s 1980’s aerobics videos reinforced gender norms in fitness centers,
solidifying the expectation that women should use cardiovascular machines and aerobics classes
while ‘real’ men engaged in strength training (Dworkin, 2003).
Originally, the bodybuilding subculture was exclusively a male domain, however, the
feminist movement and a shift in the ideal body has since attracted more women into the strength
training areas of fitness centers (Andreasson & Johansson, 2014). Communicated through
‘fitspiration’ messaging, the contemporary ‘fit ideal’ for women depicts increased muscularity,
BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS
3
characterized by toned, lean physiques and extremely low body fat (Boepple, Ata, Rum, &
Thompson, 2016; Parviainen & Aromaa, 2017). Young adult women, approximately one third of
whom exercise in fitness centers (Slater & Tiggemann, 2006), are a targeted ‘fitspiration’
audience (see Robinson, Prichard, Nikolaidis, Drummond, Drummond, & Tiggemann, 2017).
Fitness centers can offer young adult women an important context to develop a healthy and
empowered relationship with exercise that supports a positive body image, and generally, fitness
centers intend to create a positive exercise climate. Unfortunately, fitness centers are often
characterized by numerous features (e.g., full-length mirrors, posters which idealize the female
body) that communicate and reinforce unique appearance pressures for young adult women
(Prichard & Tiggemann, 2005). Internalizing these appearance pressures is associated with self
objectification or the habitual monitoring of one’s outward appearance (Fredrickson & Roberts,
1997), which can contribute to body image concerns and unhealthy weight management
practices (e.g., over-exercising, disordered eating; Chang, Pan, & Shu, 2018).
Thus far, research on body image demonstrates that fitness centers have a formative
impact on young adult women’s exercise experiences (e.g., Prichard & Tiggemann, 2005; 2012),
particularly during a critical developmental period where self-consciousness is heightened (Noll
& Fredrickson, 1998) and fitness center participation is high (Slater & Tiggemann, 2006).
However, few studies have examined socioculturally-informed body experiences specifically
within the context of fitness centers. The developmental theory of embodiment (DTE; Piran,
2017) outlines pathways through which women experience their body and presents a rich
framework for exploring this phenomenon. DTE encompasses the interactions between women
and their social environments and their embodied experiences in those environments. Uniquely,
DTE not only addresses negative experiences and pressures but also honors facilitative,
BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS
4
empowering experiences and social factors, promoting this theory as a holistic framework for
exploring young adult women’s complex exercise experiences. Therefore, the purpose of this
study was to explore young adult women’s lived experiences of their body while exercising in
fitness centers. The following research questions guided the study: (a) how do young adult
women exercisers experience their body (e.g., weight, shape, size, appearance) while exercising
in fitness centers? and (b) what specific elements of their fitness center environments do they
perceive to positively, and negatively, influence how they experience their body (e.g., weight,
shape, size, appearance) within the fitness center setting? Ultimately, this study provides insight
on how exercise professionals can advocate for fitness environments that cultivate a healthy
body culture and empower young adult women to engage in healthy relationships with
themselves and exercise.
Methods and Materials
An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) approach (Pietkiewicz & Smith,
2014), with a Photovoice method (Wang & Burris, 1994; 1997), was used in this study. In
accordance with the hermeneutic phenomenology tradition, the first author was interested in
historicality (Laverty, 2003); that is, how a person’s lived experience, and understanding of the
world, is enmeshed with their historical, cultural, and social contexts (Munhall, 1989). To
examine a lived experience within this tradition, detailed descriptions of an individual’s
background, pre-understandings, co-constitution, and interpretation provide context for how a
person makes meaning of their experiences (Benner & Wrubel, 1989). Background is defined as
a personal history – an inextricable part of a person that culture imparts on them from birth – and
is used to explain how people can experience similar phenomena in different ways (Kerry &
Armour, 2000). Heidegger (1927/1962) used the term pre-understandings to describe the
BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS
5
structure of a culture as it exists, prior to a person’s interaction with, and interpretation of, that
culture. Co-constitution relates to pre-understandings as it highlights the link between a person
and the world such that ‘we are constructed by the world in which we live, and, at the same time,
we perceive the world from our own experience and background’ (Kerry & Armour, 2000, p. 6).
Finally, Heidegger (1927/1962 as cited in Taylor, 1985) argued that every social interaction
involves interpretation - humans are self-interpretative beings, constantly redefining the self
through acts of interpretation of the culture in which they exist. Consistent with the idiographic
approach of IPA (Pietkiewicz & Smith, 2014), this study was based on photo-elicited, semi
structured interviews with a small sample of young adult women recruited through purposive
sampling. To capture the real time, lived experience of women’s body experiences in fitness
centers, this study used a Photovoice method (Wang, 1999). The Photovoice approach used
represents a blended process of photography and narratives to explore social issues (Wang &
Burris, 1994; 1997). Photovoice allowed the first author to richly describe and visualize
participants’ perceptions of their everyday realities. This was accomplished by allowing
participants to (a) document, with personal expression, factors in fitness centers that were
integral in their interpretation of their body experiences during exercise and (b) describe, in
depth, their lived experience of interacting with those factors through photos captured.
Participants
Participants were 11 young adult women aged 18-25 years (Mage = 21.8 years) who
identified as white (n = 10) and white/Native American (n = 1). As active exercisers, they
attended their current fitness center for an average of 1.74 years, exercising 4-7 days per week
(M = 4.55 days/week) at college campus recreation centers (n = 3), commercial chains (n = 3),
independent studios (n = 2), CrossFit (n = 1), and employee wellness facilities (n = 2) across four
BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS 6
states (see Table 1). All the participants were former competitive athletes who transitioned into
exercising in fitness centers after sport. Two women reported continued participation in
competitive sport during the study.
Table 1
Demographic Characteristics of Participants Based on Inclusion Criteria
Pseudonym Age Occupation Type of Fitness Center Days/week
at Fitness
Center
Sam 25 Employed Full-Time Commercial Chain 3
Lex 23 Graduate Student College Recreation Center 5
Bri 22 Graduate Student Independent Studio 6
Emi 20 Undergraduate Student CrossFit Gym 5
Amy 21 Graduate Student Commercial Chain 4.5
Ali 24 Employed Full
Time/Graduate Student
Commercial Chain 3
Mya 19 Undergraduate Student Independent Studio 5.5
Eve 24 Employed Full-Time Employee Wellness Facility 5
Zoe 18 Undergraduate Student College Recreation Center 4.5
Ann 20 Undergraduate Student College Recreation Center 4
Kay 24 Employed Full-Time Employee Wellness Facility 4.5
The Interviewer
Hermeneutic phenomenology aligns with the first author’s relativist ontological position,
(i.e., the interviewer); she acknowledges the existence of multiple realities which are interpreted
through the co-construction of experience throughout the participant-researcher exchange
(Ponterotto, 2005). The first author participated in elite aesthetic sport for 15 years followed by
regular exercise in fitness centers, which was fueled by appearance-focused motives. The first
author has a history of a negative relationship with her body and exercise, eating pathology, and
exercise dependence. She has since engaged in an active self-growth journey of mindfulness and
self-compassion, from which she developed a healthy, empowered identity as a woman in
fitness. Additionally, the first author has post-secondary training in mental health counseling and
BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS
7
is a Certified Personal Trainer with experience training young adult women. Throughout this
study, the first author consistently examined her personal assumptions by practicing Le
Vasseur’s (2003) stance of persistent curiosity – simultaneously being mindful of her role in the
interpretation of the phenomenon while being open to fresh and new perceptions that might
occur. This stance of curiosity allowed rich data interpretation as it created a nonjudgmental and
compassionate space for the first author and the participants to openly discuss potentially
sensitive experiences.
Procedure
Upon Institutional Review Board approval, convenience and snowball sampling methods
were used to identify potential participants. Flyers with eligibility criteria were posted to social
media outlets and sent via email to contacts who may know interested participants (e.g., colleges,
fitness centers, fitness professionals). Maximum variation sampling (Patton, 2001) was
employed relative to type and culture of community-based fitness centers. Interested participants
who contacted the first author engaged in a short screening call to confirm eligibility, answer
questions, obtain informed consent, and schedule the study. Data collection occurred in two
phases: (1) initial phone interview followed by a two-week photography period and (2) a 60-90
minute Skype™ interview followed by member reflections. Each phase was piloted with two
young adult female exercisers aged 23 and 25 years old to test the feasibility and clarity of the
study protocol; the pilot study informed changes that clarified participant scheduling and
photography instructions.
Phase 1. The first phase of data collection consisted of audio-recorded phone interviews,
guided by a script, to build rapport and understand the participants’ perceptions of physical and
cultural aspects of the fitness culture and their individual fitness centers. The initial phone call
BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS
8
was also used to provide instructions for taking photographs over a two-week period with a
digital camera. Instructions were to (a) take pictures with the camera embedded in their cellular
smartphone, (b) focus their photography toward the directive prompt that was provided, (c)
document additional notes or insights not captured in the photographs using a ‘log book’
(Plunkett, Leipert, & Ray, 2013), and (d) indicate their preference for phone or text reminders
during the photography period. These interviews lasted between 17-29 minutes.
To complete the two-week photography task, participants were prompted with the
‘photography mission’ (Nykiforuk, Vallianatos, & Nieuwendyk, 2011, p. 109) to ‘take
photographs of elements in your fitness center that are encouraging, and discouraging, to how
you feel, think, and perceive your body while exercising’. Encouraging was defined as to
‘inspire with courage, spirit, and hope’ (Merriam-Webster, 2020), and discouraging was defined
as to ‘make less determined, hopeful, or confident’ (Merriam-Webster, 2020). Minimal direction
beyond this prompt was given, nor a minimum number of required photographs, to promote
participant-driven exploration.
Phase 2. The second phase of data collection consisted of audio-recorded, photo-elicited,
semi-structured interviews via Skype™ (i.e., 34-80 minutes in length) to capture participants’
background, pre-understandings, co-constitution and interpretation of the phenomenon. To
begin, the first author asked about the participants’ personal histories in relation to exercise (e.g.,
‘What motivated you to begin exercising in a fitness center?’), relationship with exercise (e.g.,
‘How would you describe how you feel about exercise?’), perceptions of the fitness culture, and
motivations for exercising in a fitness center. Second, questions guided participants in describing
their photographs using the screen-sharing function of Skype™. To maintain phenomenological
consistency, participants were given the freedom to select the most descriptive and salient
BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS
9
photographs and were prompted to elaborate on the photographs using questions derived from
the SHOWeD method, a photovoice approach to interviewing (i.e., ‘What do you see here?’,
‘How does this relate to your life?’, ‘Why does this situation exist?’; Wang, 1999). Third,
participants were asked to discuss ideas that may not have been captured through their
photography (e.g., ‘What other factors, not captured by photographs, are encouraging to your
body image while exercising? Discouraging?’). Finally, participants were encouraged to share
their general perceptions of women in fitness (e.g., ‘Reflecting on this experience, what meaning
does exercising in a fitness center give your body?’). Upon the completion of phase 2, each
participant received a $25 electronic gift card to Amazon.com.
Data Analysis
Throughout each interview, the first author made reflections on the interview experience
including aspects of content, language use, context, and any noteworthy comments related to
personal reflexivity (Pietkiewicz & Smith, 2014). All interviews were transcribed verbatim while
coding any identifying information with a pseudonym and photo-editing to protect participant
confidentiality. Pietkiewicz and Smith’s (2014) practical guide for IPA in qualitative research
was followed to analyze the data. In general, IPA provides flexible guidelines which can be
adapted to the researchers’ unique research objectives and questions. Phase 1 interview data were
used to describe the participants, understand their exercise history, and elucidate their
perceptions of the sociocultural context of fitness. Phase 2 interview data were used to give
depth, description, and interpretation to the participants’ photographs. Member reflection data
were used to reflect the first author’s interpretation and thematic representation of the
participants’ experiences back to the participants.
BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS
10
To analyze the data, the first author engaged in multiple readings and note making of the
transcripts and listened to the audio recordings of each interview. Next, the analysis included
transforming notes into emergent themes by working mostly from notes to formulate concise
phrases that captured a higher level of abstraction while remaining rooted in each participant’s
account. The final stage of analysis consisted of seeking relationships and clustering themes
where the previously formulated concise phrases were analyzed to seek relationships between
phrases. These concise phrases were clustered into themes according to conceptual and
interpretative similarities and subthemes were included to capture essential depth and nuance. .
Trustworthiness
In addition to prolonged engagement and triangulation from multiple data sources (e.g.,
log books, verbal reflection; Yardley, 2008), the first author developed written case summaries
based on interview transcripts, photographs, and analyses to clarify main ideas, note initial
interpretations, and identify follow-up questions for clarification and further participant
reflection. These case summaries served as the basis for member reflections via phone with each
participant and afforded an additional opportunity for the participant and first author to co
participate in reflection of interpretation more broadly and the interview data specifically (Smith
& McGannon, 2018). All 11 participants were contacted for member reflections; nine responded
and completed a phone call lasting 10 to 20 minutes. As the first author shared her interpretations
through case descriptions, some of the participants provided additional insight after engaging in
more reflection. The first author recorded participants’ comments and insights to the case
summaries.
Additionally, the third author acted as a ‘critical friend’ at multiple points during the
analysis (Smith & McGannon, 2018). The role of a critical friend is to encourage critical
BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS
11
dialogue between researchers; a theoretical sounding board to reflect on alternative
interpretations that might emerge during the analysis process (Smith & McGannon, 2018). The
critical friend role provided additional perspective and encouraged the first author’s reflexive
approach. Specifically, in reviewing the initial notes of each participant, the third author
identified similarities between the raw data and the emergent themes, suggesting that the
interpretation required increased rigor. The third author also highlighted similarities in data
interpretations across clustering of the emergent themes early in the analysis process, which
clarified and refined subsequent steps. Importantly, the third author consistently encouraged the
first author’s reflexivity process by asking challenging questions. For example, the first and third
authors have a range of body-related experiences in fitness, allowing the third author to offer
alternative perspectives for initial interpretations (e.g., Does the participant’s hesitation to answer
represent discomfort or reflection? What differentiates the fitness center areas objectively by
gender? How? Why are women in this study so strongly driven to find comfort in their fitness
center?). This reflective process allowed the first author to maintain perspective on her
positioning with the data and maintain alignment with the phenomenon being explored.
Finally, the second author completed a series of ‘abridged audits’ conducted in
accordance with recommendations from Smith, Flowers, and Larkin (2009). These ‘abridged
audits’ consisted of the second author (faculty advisor) reviewing a single interview transcript
annotated with initial notes and emergent themes. The auditor then critically reviewed the
annotations for trustworthiness, transparency, and credibility including a logical step-by-step
path from the text to formulation of themes (Smith, Flowers, & Larkin, 2009). Four individual
abridged audits were completed during the analysis.
BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS
12
Results and Discussion
Through the Photovoice data, participants interpreted, and found meaning in, their body
through a shared experience which described power and gender dynamics while exercising in
this unique context. In the sections that follow, we elucidate each of the three over-arching
themes, namely the sociocultural fitness setting, their fitness experiences, and how they
navigated their sense of ‘place’ while exercising in fitness centers.
The Fitness Setting through a Sociocultural Lens
How the participants experienced their body while exercising was uniquely informed by
their perceptions of the fitness culture. This theme, the fitness setting through a sociocultural
lens, details the participants’ pre-understandings of the context of fitness – the social, historical,
and cultural landscape of fitness from both broader society and within their specific fitness
centers. When asked to share their perceptions of the fitness culture broadly, all the participants
described appearance expectations communicated by social media (e.g., Instagram). Participants
specifically described an unrealistic fit ideal characterized by a muscular body with ‘six pack
abs’ (Eve), ‘cuts [sic] in her arms’ (Amy), ‘definition without bulking up’ (Amy), and an
‘hourglass figure - flat stomach’ (Mya) that is also ‘curvy, the way a woman should be’ (Sam).
In perpetuating this fit ideal, some participants explained that social media has ‘become more
about your appearance and less about the healthy lifestyle’ (Lex). Bri shared:
Fitness influencers on Instagram for sure - I’ve seen a negative influence in that
[sic] because they’re spewing out all this information and they might not even be
a certified personal trainer. They might be extremely fit and say, “you need to do
this for your body” and people get discouraged if they don’t look like that. It’s
kind of just this negative society.
BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS
13
These notions are consistent with research examining the fit ideal across ‘fitspiration’ websites,
which have been found to overemphasize the importance of appearance and provide
controversial recommendations, such as over-exercising and restrictive dieting (Boepple, Ata,
Rum, & Thompson, 2016), to which participants in our study were acutely aware.
As part of the fit ideal, participants described expectations, communicated by athletic
apparel companies, to wear tight, form-fitting, and revealing clothing while exercising. Eve
explained: ‘there’s now clothing lines that are geared towards – like you [need to] have this
specific body type to pull off, like just a sports bra. When was the last time you cared about what
you look like when you’re going to the gym?!’ Ali similarly expressed: ‘…but I just want to
wear my black leggings and a big sweatshirt. And then I feel like people are going to judge
me…’. This fear of judgement is consistent with literature suggesting that being taken seriously
in a fitness environment is associated with wearing ‘purpose-made, gym-specific’ clothing
(Sassatelli, 1999, p. 231) and ‘creates a fuzzy line between health and being perfect’ for women
(Fisher, Berbary, & Misener, 2018, p. 486), even prior to entering the fitness center to exercise.
In pursuit of the fit ideal in the ‘right’ clothes, participants described women’s
motivations to exercise as appearance-focused, as Zoe described: ‘I don’t think many girls have
ever walked into a gym not because there was something that they wanted to fix’. Mya even
noted that individuals will pursue the fit ideal with extreme, self-punishing workouts: ‘People
that don’t classify themselves as fit, if they don’t look the part, what they say is “I’m dying at the
gym”, or “killing myself at the gym”. They have to hurt themselves to look like that, you know?’
Research suggests that exposure to, and the pursuit of, the fit ideal is associated with a range of
negative experiences. Observing ‘fitspiration’ content on social media, for example, has been
shown to increase body dissatisfaction in young adult women (Robinson, Prichard, Nikolaidis,
BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS
14
Drummond, Drummond, & Tiggemann, 2017) while wearing fashionable, tight-fitting clothes
has been shown to increase self-objectification and -surveillance (Prichard & Tiggemann, 2005).
Participants in the current study recognized that an appearance-focused fitness culture is
misguided, such that the fit ideal for women is unrealistic and fails to embrace body diversity.
In addition to strict body- and apparel-expectations from broader society, participants
also described the presence of strong gender norms in their fitness centers, which were perceived
negatively. Zoe noticed how her fitness center was separated by gender-stereotyped exercise
modalities:
I don’t even know if [the fitness center] says much about women. The main gym
is for weightlifting and I don’t really think the way that it’s designed gives a place
for women. Conveniently, cardio, which is what a lot of women do, is in a whole
separate space and all of the classes are held in completely different areas of the
gym. So, I think subconsciously and, hopefully not on purpose, it was designed in
a way that put women elsewhere. My guess is that it was probably a – the person
who probably did [sic] the layout of the gym was probably a white male.
Early literature suggested that fitness centers were historically masculine institutions that
prioritized the physical dominance of men (Klein, 1993) and were designed in ways that
reinforced gender segregation (Craig & Liberti, 2007). For Ali, the fitness center was
experienced in a gender-segregated way which ultimately influenced her early perceptions of
where women belong in fitness:
…rec center had a lot of different rooms. One room would be cardio, one room
would be the weight machines, and then another would be the regular weights.
And the room with the regular weights, there was all the big-time weightlifter
BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS
15
guys and stuff and no girls, so it wasn’t really comfortable going in there, so I’d
just stick with the cardio machines - I guess it’s like specific areas for specific
people.
These findings are consistent with evidence that fitness centers are built in ways that reinforce
gender lines and segregation by structurally separating cardiovascular equipment intended for
women from weight training machines intended for men (Dworkin, 2003). In sum, the
participants’ pre-understandings of the broad fitness culture included strict, appearance-focused
body expectations, apparel standards for women, and fitness centers characterized by gender
stereotypes and norms which, ultimately, were perceived as unwelcoming to women in fitness.
The Fitness Experience
Exercising within the context of fitness centers resulted in a complex experience for the
participants. Through the Photovoice data, this theme, The Fitness Experience, elucidates
common factors, discouraging and then encouraging, of the participants’ fitness centers that
influenced how they interacted with the setting and how they experienced their body while
exercising there.
Discouraging factors. Participants perceived their fitness centers to be dominated by
factors that were discouraging to their body experiences while exercising. Participants felt that
fitness centers represented a space primed for self-evaluation. The presence of large mirrors,
machines, as well as men gazing directly upon women in the weight area were identified as some
of the common triggers. As such, the structural aspects of the exercise space itself represented a
male-only, hegemonic masculine space which: ‘just turns [women] away, where it’s already like
a men’s club. So, you’ve already turned away like 90 percent of women’ (Zoe). For example,
Sam captured the masculine-dominated representation on weight machines at her fitness center:
BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS
16
‘on all weighted machines - it’s the musculature of a man. It just goes back to being like “oh this
is a man’s workout”. Like, fitness is for a man - kind of got a little bit of sexism in there.’
Figure 1
“This is a man’s workout” by Sam
The presence of the male musculature on weight machines reinforced the message that weight
training is for heteronormative men. Interestingly, the presence of this factor not only
perpetuated hegemonic masculinity, but the absence of female representation was noted to
increase the risk of self-doubt about belonging in the weight area. When asked to interpret what
this meant to her about her exercising body, Sam declared: ‘oh, if I do these exercises I’m going
to look like a dude.’ She elaborated on her personal frustrations at the gender expectations placed
on women in fitness: ‘I mean, [it’s] like they’re afraid of a strong woman.’ In recent research,
women have described this experience as being crowded out of spaces because of hegemonic
BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS
17
masculinity and, as a result, felt the pressure to minimize their presence in male-dominated areas
of the fitness center (Coen, Rosenberg, & Davidson, 2018). In our study, not only was this
message communicated by the predominance of male representation on weight machines, but
also through the absence of actual equipment designed for women who lift weights. Traditional
weightlifting bars are designed differently for men and women. For example, Rogue Fitness
(2020) provides a ‘Men’s Ohio’ bar and a ‘Women’s Bella’ bar. The Bella bar is a bar length of
75.13”, bar diameter of 25mm, and weight of 15kg, which is smaller than the men’s Ohio bar
which is 86.75” in length, 28.5mm in diameter, and 20kg in weight. The differences are
deliberate to accommodate purported differences in center of gravity and weight distribution and
differences in hand and grip size between sexes (Rogue, 2020). Zoe, a member of a weightlifting
club, photographed the barbells at her fitness center:
Figure 2
“They don’t understand the difference” by Zoe
BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS
18
I don’t know why they won’t just buy women’s bars. The idea that it’s a men club
is kind of pushed. Like, “this is a place for like guys to come and lift and get
swole” and, you know, a girl at the rig sticks out like a sore thumb.
For many of the participants in our study, discomfort and fear of evaluation were salient
experiences due to being highly visible as a woman in the male-dominated weight area. Many of
the participants also described avoiding certain machines that triggered an uncomfortable, self
conscious experience. The assisted pull-up machine was photographed as a salient symbol for
this threatening experience. Kay shared her vulnerability related to this machine - fear in her
ability to perform the exercise and self-deprecating conclusions about her eating habits, weight,
and body if unable to successfully complete a pull-up:
Figure 3
“Women can’t do these” by Kay
BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS
19
I don’t like going on that machine just because I feel like it makes me super self
conscious. It’s like, “oh well, you ate too much the past couple of days so that’s
why you can’t lift yourself up and that’s why you have to add more”. It actually
becomes very, very negative when I have to do that. If you like can do it, it’s like
“oh my gosh, you can do a pull-up, that’s amazing”. It kind of qualifies you as a
fitness person in my mind.
These results elucidated that traditional fitness centers can have a restrictive influence on a
woman’s body experience based on the gender norms reinforced. Cockburn and Clarke (2002)
found that adolescent girls similarly avoided experiences that either threatened the female
identity or challenged one’s ability to measure up to the socially-defined body ideal. For adult
women in mixed-gendered gyms, avoidance of exercises may be due to risk, or fear, of not being
able to perform the exercise in a confident way (Fisher, Berbary, & Misener, 2018). Given
traditional beliefs that women possess upper body strength inferior to men (Miller, MacDougall,
Tarnopolsky, & Sale, 1993), it is unsurprising that the women in our study avoided or felt
uncomfortable using pullup machines. The perceived dominance of male representation on
strength equipment, absence of representation and equipment designed for women, gender norms
about strength, and equipment that posed a threat to their identity as a woman contributed to self
objectification and self-consciousness about their belonging in a space defined by hegemonic
masculinity.
Encouraging factors. Although the discussion was dominated by discouraging factors,
the participants captured encouraging factors that were perceived to buffer negative experiences
while exercising in their fitness centers. Most notably, a learning environment, apparel standards,
the freedom to choose empowering exercises and machines, and self-acceptance-based messages
BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS
20
in the fitness center encouraged positive body experiences while exercising. Emi shared that the
combination of scaled workout options guided by a knowledgeable coach at her fitness center
neutralized the fear of failing at difficult exercises. In contrast with past experiences at other
fitness centers, Emi felt comfortable in her body in this environment because different levels of
fitness experience were normalized:
Figure 4
“Being guided to success” by Emi
On the board, they’ll put scaling options. “Here’s the traditional weight, but also
here are some other things that you could do if you’re not comfortable doing
that”. I like the teaching slash learning aspect of it, that you’re being guided to
success, like you weren’t just – like I walked into [name of past fitness center]
and just kind of did whatever I wanted to do. There’s no guidance really.
For other participants, a positive body experience included the ability to create, choose, and scale
exercises in their workout to meet their personal comfort levels with fitness. Amy captured this
freedom to choose in a photograph of a long rack of different sized dumbbells: ‘My favorite
BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS
21
thing to see at the gym - one of my things to go to first. I can normally do the majority of my
workout with free weights; I get creative. It definitely helps body image when like I’ve seen
myself increase weight.’
Figure 5
“My favorite thing to see at the gym” by Amy
The opportunity to scale workouts and have access to equipment, which fostered the
participants’ ability to explore their physical abilities, was encouraged through textual messages
on decals in some fitness centers. For example, Ali and Bri highlighted the encouraging
experience related to message boards on which facility staff wrote a new message each day. The
content was described as self-compassionate, which motivated Ali to practice self-kindness
towards her body and exercise in ways that positively served her body: ‘[It means that] I’m at a
BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS
22
different point than everyone, but like we’re [all] here for maybe the same reason, kind of the
same reasons, but like we’re doing what’s best for us.’
Figure 6
“We are [all] doing what’s best for us” by Ali
Research exploring the influence of textual messaging in fitness centers suggests that typical
language insinuates that if women ‘tried harder’ or ‘pushed themselves’, they could achieve the
societal definition of fit and attain the ideal (Fisher, Berbary, & Misener, 2018, p.488).
Unfortunately, Fisher and colleagues highlighted that this type of language often creates conflict
for women’s experiences with their body. In our study, participants verbalized that language
consistent with self-acceptance (e.g., ‘Go on, flex!’, Sam) and self-kindness (e.g., ‘Do more of
what makes you happy’, Bri), encouraged a more positive and harmonious existence with their
body while exercising. All the participants shared that quotations, decals, and message boards
which displayed textual messages of gratitude, self-compassion, and self-acceptance helped them
believe their fitness centers challenged negative messaging portrayed by the broader fitness
BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS
23
culture. Strengthening the support for self-compassion-based messaging, Lex described a sub
space within her gym (i.e., separate exercise room) adorned with self-compassion messages as
‘her favorite place’. Ali and Emi, who participated in fitness centers without mirrors (e.g.,
CrossFit box, cycle studio), also noted that messaging which fostered a culture of self
compassion (e.g., ‘Head high and proud. This stuff is hard’, Emi) de-emphasized appearance and
emphasized physical effort and performance (e.g., ‘It doesn’t matter where you finish, only that
you finish with integrity and give it a solid effort’, Emi). Self-compassion-based messages
presented through platforms such as social media have been shown to buffer the internalization
of the fit ideal for young adult college women (Slater, Varsani, & Diedrichs, 2017). Our results
suggested a similar experience whereby messages directly displayed in fitness centers through
posters, decals, and message boards, buffered negative body experiences. Thus, despite the
dominance of discouraging factors in the fitness center, participants felt that the presence of self
compassion messages challenged their negative thoughts and feelings about their body while
exercising.
In addition to textual messages which encouraged self-compassion and body acceptance,
fitness centers that included efforts to moderate apparel standards were perceived as
encouraging. For Lex, an enforced dress code minimized the pressure to wear tight, form fitting
clothes and encouraged comfort in her own skin:
BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS
24
Figure 7
A space for “all body shapes and all body sizes” by Lex
When I see those people I am immediately self-conscious or I’m like you know “I
wish I looked like that”. I just think [the dress code] is more inclusive to all
people….I think that they were just trying to create a space where everyone feels
comfortable. I’m ten times more confident knowing I won’t see any of the
[negative influencers].
Lex elaborated on how clothing played a key role in how she perceived herself and other women
in the fitness center. The enforcement of a dress code minimized body comparison for Lex
because it encouraged participation of women of all shapes and sizes. Craig and Liberti (2007)
described that representation of all women in fitness centers can help promote health as a state of
being, not as a particular body type. In our study, participants felt that an established dress code
BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS
25
in the fitness center encouraged the participation of women of all ages, shapes, and backgrounds,
deemphasized a singular body ideal, and supported body acceptance.
Navigating Their ‘Place’
The participants’ experience with the discouraging and encouraging factors in their
fitness centers influenced how they used the space itself as well as the meaning they attributed to
their bodies while exercising. Several of the participants preferred an exercise environment
which supported their freedom to choose exercises and workouts. Unfortunately, most fitness
centers are designed to segregate spaces. Therefore, most of the participants described navigating
this barrier by seeking out a subspace in the facility characterized, by what they labeled, as
‘comfortable’. The word ‘comfortable’ arose repeatedly across our participants’ experiences and,
in this context, comfort represented the absence of conflict. In prior research, comfort in women
only fitness centers is provided by an organizational culture of nonjudgement (Craig & Liberti,
2007); however, in many mixed-gender fitness centers, a culture of non-judgement is not
prioritized. To navigate negative experiences, participants in this study chose to, when possible,
exercise in non-threatening spaces to lessen risk of objectification, embarrassment, or judgement.
This was predominately achieved by secluding oneself in a private room, free of others. For
example, Mya described hiding in the group exercise room during workouts:
BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS
26
Figure 8
“Comfortable in this space” by Mya
Note: photo editing included blurring using Photoshop to de-identify individual.
You might be doing an exercise that might not be the cutest one, you know glutes,
like hip thrusts and stuff are actually – they’re pretty awkward to do in front of
people. When my face gets really red and I’m like dead-sweating, no one can see
and so, it’s – I just feel like 100% in my zone and focused.
Researchers have noted that seeking comfortable subspaces is a common negotiating strategy for
women in fitness centers (Fisher, Berbary, & Misener, 2018). Fisher and colleagues found that
negotiating a constraint does not necessarily ensure participant enjoyment or remove the barriers
that adult women face. Piran’s (2017) DTE describes a dimension of body connection and
comfort, the quality of the connection to the body, as either comfortable or problematic. Aligned
with Piran’s theory, participants in this study experienced salient body disconnection and
discomfort in the segregated structure of the weight-area of the fitness center and actively sought
spaces which afforded a more positive experience of embodiment, consistent with the body
BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS
27
connection and comfort dimension of the theory. There were participants who felt discouraged
by the need to seek a comfortable subspace in the fitness center, especially when engaging in
exercises believed to further objectify women’s bodies or go beyond the bounds of acceptable
femininity. In contrast, a few participants in our study perceived this negotiating strategy as an
opportunity: ‘That can be as exciting as you want it to be, but as calm. Sometimes having the
empty space to yourself is encouraging; you can do your own thing without feeling judgement or
consideration towards anyone else’s space’ (Eve). This finding suggests that the provision of
private spaces in the fitness center may be the encouraging factor that some women need to
participate in fitness.
Markula (2003) described exercisers that continue to participate according to gender
lines, while also questioning the body ideals promoted by the fitness industry, as conflicted
conformists. Because it represents the path of least resistance, many individuals accept and
internalize exercise gender norms (Lorber, 2010). The acceptance of gender lines in the weight
area ultimately deterred Kay from performing complex exercises that she had learned through
years of sports participation. In a hegemonic masculine environment, she felt afraid of taking up
space, negatively influencing her confidence in performing mastered exercises:
BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS
28
Figure 9
“Maybe they should have it instead of me” by Kay
Using platforms and barbells is something I’ve always been proud of being able
to do, just because I had to do it for sports. I tend to actually stay away from them
because I feel like they’re kind of the center of attention. Everyone is facing that
area and I don’t want to take up too much of someone else’s time if they’re
waiting for it – especially if they’re lifting more than I am so I feel like maybe
they should have it instead of me and I can go just use dumbbells or something
like that.
The participants in our study changed their exercise routine to adhere to established gender
norms by establishing their ‘place’ in a private subspace of the facility or by avoiding exercises
they had mastered. Unfortunately, these spatial practices, like the ones described by our
BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS
29
participants, further reinforce power relations, gender norms, and the spatial privilege of
hegemonic masculinity (Coen, Rosenberg, & Davidson, 2018). Furthermore, how women use the
exercise space is consistent with the agency and functionality dimension of Piran’s (2017) DTE.
Piran suggests that young adult women who are able to maintain agency in their physical
environment, through physical ability and functionality, report more positive embodiment
experiences. Restrictions in the exercise space may lead to a restricted physical expression which
is associated with the loss of valued experience of competence (Piran, 2017). In this study,
barriers to agency and functionality, a critical component of a positive embodiment experience,
were represented through Kay’s experience of being forced to utilize the fitness center in
restrictive ways.
A few of the participants in our study consciously rejected the prescribed gender lines of
their fitness center and configured their workouts as demonstrations to advocate for a place for
women in the weight areas. For example, Amy navigated her fitness center by entering the male
dominated weight area on a regular basis to communicate that women can capably lift weights:
I want to be strong and I want to be independent. I mean, I’m not saying I’m
nearly close to outlifting any of those guys, but to know – like when I’m carrying
a heavy box and they’re like “oh let me take that from you”, and I can be like,
“no, I’m perfectly capable”.
Amy highlighted that she was often the only woman in the weight area of the gym, which
resulted in an uncomfortable experience. However, in contrast to some of the participants, she
believed her responsibility as a woman in fitness was to advocate for the representation of
women in the weight areas. She did acknowledge that she experienced perceived – and
sometimes obvious – social sanctions for her efforts:
BODY EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE EXERCISERS IN FITNESS CENTERS
30
There is a lot of men back there and they’re all huge guys. I went up to the bench
beside this one guy and he just gives me this funny look, like “what are you doing
back here” and I go grab some weight and start lifting while he’s still just sitting
there like “what are you doing?”
Previous researchers have described this form of advocacy as crossing the gendered lines – the
social and structural boundaries separating gendered activities and spaces (Coen, Rosenberg, &
Davidson, 2018). Furthermore, using the body as protest, resistance, and defiance towards
‘normative’ pressures is suggested by Piran (2017) as a critical component of a positive
experience of embodiment, which aligns with one’s need for comfort, safety, and joy in one’s
body. Perhaps this resistance also helps strengthen one’s identity as a strong, active person. For
our participants, these overt efforts were both empowering and difficult to sustain in the face of
embedded masculinity and stereotypes about women in fitness.
Meeting the Mental Health Needs of Student-Athletes: A : Meeting the Mental Health Needs of Student-Athletes: A
Descriptive Study of Practitioners and their Perspectives
Descriptive Study of Practitioners and their Perspectives
William C. Way III
West Virginia University, wcway@mix.wvu.edu
Follow this and additional works at: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd
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Meeting the Mental Health Needs of Student-Athletes: A Descriptive Study of Practitioners and
their Perspectives
William C. Way
Dissertation submitted
to the College of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences
at West Virginia University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctorate of Philosophy in
Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology
Jack C. Watson II, Ph.D., Chair
Samuel Zizzi, Ed.D.
Monica Leppma, Ph.D.
Ashley Coker-Cranney, Ph.D.
Department of Sport Sciences
Morgantown, WV
2021
Keywords: Mental health, Practitioners, Student-athletes, Counseling, Psychological services
Copyright 2021 William Way
ABSTRACT
Meeting the Mental Health Needs of Student-Athletes: A Descriptive Study of Practitioners and
their Perspectives
William C. Way
Efforts are being made to promote mental health awareness and destigmatize help-seeking
behavior among student-athletes (e.g., Kern et al., 2017). The availability and visibility of
practitioners with specialized training in sport psychology can facilitate these efforts (e.g.,
Flowers, 2007; Carr, 2007; McDuff et al., 2005). However, some student-athletes have observed
that the clinical sport psychology (CSP) practitioners who are available to them are being
stretched thin (Way et al., 2020). In the context of collegiate mental health more broadly, many
campus counseling centers are struggling to meet the demand for clinical services (e.g., Kafka,
2019). Research on the experiences and perspectives of CSP practitioners in the collegiate setting
has been scarce (cf. Schlimmer & Chin, 2018), and has neglected the vantage point of
practitioners who support student-athletes at institutions that do not have access to sport
psychology services (cf. Petrie et al., 1995). As such, the first objective of this study was to
expand upon the work of Hayden and colleagues (2013) to identify the population of clinical and
applied sport psychology practitioners from all NCAA member institution websites (Power 5
conferences, all other DI, DII, and DIII). The second objective was to survey the experiences of
these practitioners and counseling/psychological services staff at institutions that did not list CSP
personnel. As a whole, practitioners reported that some generalized services (e.g., personal
counseling available to all students, crisis intervention) were more in-demand among student
athletes than specialized sport-specific services. Sport psychology services were more common
at P5 and other DI institutions, but also more likely to be stretched or exceeded by demand
relative to similar services at DII and DIII institutions. At the risk of reducing service availability
to a numerical tally of haves and have-nots, quantitative and qualitative data shed light on the
ways in which practitioners experienced and were impacted by the structure, function,
availability of, and institutional support for psychological services. In their open-ended
responses, the most prevalent need that practitioners expressed was for more staffing (more staff,
more diverse staff, and more multidisciplinary staff). Results invite athletics and institutional
administration to consider the loads that are being shouldered by mental health and sport
psychology staff at their institutions; the voice and support that is granted to these practitioners;
and the value of robust mental health services/outreach for recruitment, retention, and risk
management.
Acknowledgments
iii
I am filled with emotion as I look back on my time at WVU through to the completion of this
project. What a formative chapter in my life this has been! This document already has so many
pages that I feel no pressure to be stingy here with my gratitude.
First and foremost, I would like to thank my committee members. Your mentorship and guidance
took root long before this project was even an idea, and will extend far beyond its completion.
Dr. Watson, from the moment I arrived on campus as an anxious candidate during interview
weekend, I felt that I could be my authentic self with you. During our interview, you asked me
about my strengths and weaknesses. Mustering the confidence to stand in my strengths was hard
enough, until you reminded me about the penalty flag that would be discharged in the event of
cliché “weaknesses.” Perhaps caught off guard by the humor of the situation I blurted out (maybe
in more detail than you were looking for!) that I can over-think things and get in my own way.
You can now be the judge of the veracity of that response (: Through my time at WVU, your
encouragement, support, and affirmation have helped me to stand more firmly in my strengths
and to step back for a moment when my mind gets tangled. From essential readings and teaching
observation, to research meetings, classes, career lunch, etc., you have taught me so much. In
addition to disciplinary knowledge and professional practice wisdom that you have passed on,
you have taught me (perhaps without meaning to) about hard work, balance, family, hula
hooping, and the value of infectious laughter that echoes down the hall. I am so fortunate to have
a mentor like you, and am beyond grateful for all that you have invested in me.
Dr. Zizzi, you have helped this project to morph and take shape since dissertation seminar.
Throughout this journey you have challenged me to remember that, oftentimes, less is more…
that it’s okay to wander in the forest, so long as one can climb up above the trees thereafter. I
have to admit that this document doesn’t strike me as a “win” in the less-is-more column (!!),
and it may be that I will always have to wander further than most before I can climb up, but your
voice of wisdom and pragmatism will always encourage me to do so. I should add that your
health and exercise psych course sits high on my list of favorites, and was incredibly impactful
for me. You have helped me to see the importance of “staying in your lane,” but also that an
openness to peeking into other “lanes” can be incredibly instructive. You introduced me to
program evaluation and stoked a systems-level curiosity within me. This energy and these ideas
are cemented in the foundation of this project; and I have no doubt, in the foundation of my
future career as a scholar-practitioner as well. Thank you.
Dr. Leppma, from your Theories and Techniques class during my first semester, through to
supervision during internship, and now to dissertation, you have been with me through every leg
of my journey at WVU. Whether it was discussing course content and case studies, or sorting
through the myriad thoughts, emotions, and questions that have come up through it all, you have
always been willing to carve out extra time to help. Throughout my studies and training, you
iv
have helped me to identify and clarify my approach to practice as a clinician in training – a
philosophy that fits authentically for me as a person, and infuses my research too. I have so
deeply valued your insight and mentorship.
Dr. Cranney, if I only had one word to describe you and your mentorship, it would be “brilliant.”
First, I say “brilliant” because you are one of the sharpest and most intelligent thinkers I have
ever met. You have a way of seeing and conceptualizing things from different angles and with a
level of sophistication that – on several occasions – has left me flabbergasted. I also say
“brilliant” because there is an intensity, a brightness to the energy and curiosity that seems to fill
all that you do. Through your encouragement, and through the example you set, you inspire me
to reach – to consider a different perspective, to ask questions, to go out on a limb every so often,
and to never set limits on what I do.
Outside of my committee, there are so many who I want to thank for their influence and support;
so many who have made my time at WVU and this culminating project so meaningful.
Dr. Etzel, I am beyond fortunate to have “snuck in” prior to your retirement, and you have been
like a second advisor to me. I arrived on campus a bit starstruck, and this was perhaps most
palpable in your ethics class during my first semester. Here I was learning ethics from “the ethics
guy,” and I vividly recall choking on my nerves during what should have been a routine “what
did you learn from the chapter” sort of presentation. It was awful. We talked about it in your
office not long thereafter. “It was a bit tense,” you said with a warm grin, and we both had a
good laugh about it. From that point on, I felt freed up to take myself a little less seriously and to
remember that any moment can become a learning opportunity so long as we are mindful enough
to see it as such. I must add that any knowledge of counseling college student-athletes I have
accumulated, I owe to you. You taught me to notice the culture of athletics and to use a holistic,
developmental lens in my work with student-athletes. Finally, it seemed like your door was
always open for a quick question, a consult, a good joke, a thought-provoking quote, and/or a
really, really good cup of coffee (“a speedy cup of Seattle’s Beast,” as you would put it). Thank
you so much for all of your wisdom, guidance, and support.
To all at the Carruth Center, my supervisors, and especially Layne, Missy, and T.Anne – I am
grateful beyond words for the environment and the opportunities you offered me as a trainee.
During a critical period in my professional development, I always had someone I could go to for
help – from fumbling my way through Titanium for the first week (or month?!) and planning
group sessions, to getting a second opinion on a risk assessment or processing transitions in my
own life. I felt seen, held, affirmed, and encouraged, as well as challenged and extended. I
emerged with a sense of growth, authentic confidence (or perhaps confidence in my authentic
self), and inner certainty that “this is what I want to do with my life” unlike any I had known
before. All of you, the work that you do, and the training you provide were in my heart during
this study.
v
To all my classmates in the program – past and present – it is a great joy and privilege to call you
friends and colleagues. This program is so special because of the collaboration, support, and
togetherness we have shared. To my cohort partners…
Bobby – My basecamp desk neighbor, there was never a dull moment! Perhaps spurred by some
“unique” overheard choices in my headphones (“Bill, am I going crazy or are you listening to
bird sounds?!”), you have introduced me to some great bands. I also have a newfound
appreciation for Jeopardy from the mentorship of its greatest fan. Both of these things – music,
and Jeopardy – have, to my surprise, been significant components of dissertating through
quarantine. Finally, I think you are as close to a human database as one can get, and inspire me to
consume more research. I sincerely hope that our collaboration will continue beyond our time in
the program.
Kate – I don’t think I could have survived multivariate without you! From all the classes we
shared, to navigating internship, I always appreciated your insight and your sense of humor. I
also recall you having the most beautiful, nutritious meals prepped for in between the myriad
demands of the day. Even if I haven’t quite nailed it yet, you challenged me to consider the
importance of properly fueling the mind and body throughout a busy day (perhaps one spent
dissertating!). I would also be remiss if I didn’t add that I was blown away by your dissertation,
and hope that I can stay current on the amazing things that you are going to do in the field.
Spencer – MY MAN. Our friendship through these last several years has been a true treasure,
and our shared adventures in your beautiful home state made for a season of my life that I will
never forget. From wide-eyed counseling tapes, to bonking on the ascent of Mud Pike,
demolishing Kroger’s supply of peanut butter, and the innumerable antics that we shared during
your time with us at the Way Café, you helped this high-strung neurotic to remember that the
fun/free child needs to get out to play every now and again. Your poised, mindful, and deliberate
wisdom is an exceptional gift, and one that has helped me to great effect on more than one
occasion. Your discerning eye and constructive feedback have been especially helpful and
appreciated throughout this project. I feel so fortunate that our paths have converged and crossed,
and I want to send my sincere gratitude your way.
To Jeri, Wesley, and Shannon – My experiences with LeadWELL and WellWVU were
incredibly valuable. Your mentorship and supervision helped to cultivate the campus-as
community perspective that was foundational for this project. You also gave me space to think
independently, creatively, and critically about student health and wellness. I have a new
appreciation for the value of meeting and engaging students where they are; and my idea of what
“outreach” is has been greatly enriched and expanded because of you.
Last, and certainly not least, to my family…
vi
Mom – Your strength has always inspired me, and as I have matured, I have come to see more
and more clearly just how strong you really are. Likewise, as I have grown and matured, so too
has our relationship. Watching this metamorphosis through my young adulthood has been one of
my greatest joys. Through it all, your listening ear, support, and unconditional love have made
all the difference in my life. I could never have done this without you.
Jason – Bro, your creativity and determination never cease to amaze me. All that you do, you do
wholeheartedly, and I deeply admire this about you. I have tried to emulate your energy and
passion in this project, and will continue striving to do so in my future work.
Grandpop – You delight in simplicity and beauty as an artist, and navigate obstacles with the
pragmatic ingenuity of an engineer. I used to see these two ways of being as incompatible, but
have come to realize how harmonious they are for you. I can see your influence and example
rubbing off on me as I look back on the journey of this dissertation.
John and Donna – What a strange, tense place this world was during 2020. You have been saints
to take me and Gabby in through this unexpected time of quarantine and “in between.” I could
not be more grateful for your support and provision. Who knows, once you are rid of us, perhaps
the extra space at “Club Kendall” could become a Bed and Breakfast retreat for frazzled writers
or dissertation hopefuls like me (;
Gabby – My love and my light, I could not imagine sharing this journey with anyone but you.
From our breakfast breaks and plowing through websites, to long walks and deep talks, you have
helped me through this project and this season in more ways than I can say. You have been my
constant, and a voice of wisdom. With each passing day, I feel like I learn more and more about
God’s love through you. In each chapter of our life together I find myself awestruck by how
much we continue to learn and grow – as individuals, as a couple, and as a team. This chapter
has been no exception, and I cannot wait to see what unfolds when we find ourselves, “on the
road again.”
vii
Table of Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1
Service Availability and Providers .............................................................................................. 2
Demand for Services ................................................................................................................... 3
Practitioner Perspectives and Experiences .................................................................................. 4
Purpose ............................................................................................................................................ 6
Methods........................................................................................................................................... 8
Website Review Procedures ........................................................................................................ 8
Survey Development ................................................................................................................... 8
Survey Recruitment ................................................................................................................... 10
Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 11
Results ........................................................................................................................................... 12
Practitioner Frequencies (RQ 1a) .............................................................................................. 12
CSP Titles and Training (RQs 1b and 1c) ................................................................................. 13
Survey Descriptives................................................................................................................... 14
Perceived Demand for Services Among Student-Athletes (RQ 2a) ......................................... 15
Cross-Tabulations for Demand .............................................................................................. 15
Demand Cross-Tab: CSP. .................................................................................................. 16
Demand Cross-Tab: Applied Sport Psychology. ............................................................... 17
Demand Cross-Tab: General Counseling. ......................................................................... 17
Demand Cross-Tab: Mandated Counseling. ...................................................................... 17
Demand Cross-Tab: Crisis Intervention. ........................................................................... 18
Perceived Demand for Sport Psychology Services When Not Offered (RQ 2b) ...................... 18
Perceived Availability of Services for Students/Student-Athletes (RQ 2c) .............................. 19
Cross-Tabulations for Availability ........................................................................................ 20
Availability Cross-Tab: CSP and Applied Sport Psychology............................................ 20
Availability Cross-Tab: General Counseling. .................................................................... 21
Availability Cross-tab: Psychiatry, Mandated Counseling, and Crisis Intervention. ........ 21
Practitioner Experiences at High and Low Service Availability (RQs 3b and 3c) ................... 22
Adding Qualitative Detail to Scaled Survey Items ................................................................ 24
Caseload and Client Risk ................................................................................................... 24
Self-Care ............................................................................................................................ 27
viii
Emotional Support ............................................................................................................. 28
Professional Development ................................................................................................. 29
On-Call Hours .................................................................................................................... 29
Additional Practitioner Perspectives (RQs 3a and 3c) .............................................................. 30
Campus Administration ......................................................................................................... 30
Diversity and Inclusion .......................................................................................................... 32
Visibility to and Rapport With Student-Athletes .................................................................. 35
Confidentiality ....................................................................................................................... 37
Stigma .................................................................................................................................... 38
Peer Consultation for Work With Athletics .......................................................................... 39
Summary and Segue .................................................................................................................. 40
Discussion ..................................................................................................................................... 41
Objective 1: Identify and Describe the Population of Collegiate CSP Practitioners ................ 41
Website Review: Practical Implications ................................................................................ 42
Objective 2: Describe Practitioner Perspectives on Service Availability ................................. 43
Demand for Unavailable Sport Psychology Services ............................................................ 44
Demand for Other Clinical Services Among Student-Athletes. ............................................ 45
Mandated Services. ............................................................................................................ 45
Psychiatry Services. ........................................................................................................... 46
Crisis Intervention Services. .............................................................................................. 46
Objective 3: Explore Practitioner Experiences ......................................................................... 47
Persistent Need ...................................................................................................................... 47
Practitioner Voice and Other Feedback Loops ...................................................................... 48
Mental Health Promotion in Athletics ................................................................................... 49
Survey Data: Potential Limitations ........................................................................................... 50
Conclusions ................................................................................................................................... 51
References ..................................................................................................................................... 56
Appendix A: Tables and Figures .................................................................................................. 69
Table 1. Summary of sub-questions and planned analyses ....................................................... 69
Table 2. Sources that guided survey item development ............................................................ 70
Table 3. Sport psychology practitioner presence cross-tabulated by NCAA division level ..... 71
Table 4. Cross-tabulation of demand for mental health services by division level and
proportion of clinical hours with student-athletes ..................................................................... 72
ix
Table 5. Cross-tabulation of perceived mental health service availability for students/student
athletes by division level and proportion of clinical hours with student-athletes ..................... 73
Table 6. Independent sample t-tests comparing experiential statements across low and high
perceived service availability groups ........................................................................................ 74
Table 7. Themes, sub-themes, and initial codes from inductive thematic analysis .................. 75
Figure 1. Frequencies of perceived demand for services among student-athletes .................... 81
Figure 2. Frequencies of perceived availability of services ...................................................... 82
Appendix B: Text Version of Qualtrics Survey ............................................................................ 83
Appendix C: Pre-Proposal Reflections and Philosophical Assumptions ...................................... 88
Appendix D: IRB Approval Letter ............................................................................................... 94
Appendix E: Extended Results ..................................................................................................... 96
Appendix F: Extended Review of Literature. ............................................................................. 150
CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES
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Introduction
At present, most institutions do not offer specialized services for the mental health and
performance-related needs of student-athletes (Kornspan & Duve, 2006; Hayden et al., 2013;
Connole et al., 2014; Sudano & Miles, 2017). Developing specialized services for athletics may
not be practical or feasible when counseling and psychological services (CAPS) staff are already
struggling to meet the needs of their campus communities. Many college counseling centers have
not received additional resources during times of increased service utilization (Hodges, 2001;
Eells et al., 2005), and are left to improvise amid heavy demands and unsustainable conditions
(Much et al., 2010; Watkins et al., 2012; Schwartz, 2013). Kafka (2019) encapsulated these
problematic conditions in his article title, Overburdened mental-health counselors look after
students. But who looks after the counselors? The support needs of campus mental health
practitioners may be in need of increased attention, and when a lone embedded practitioner is the
only one providing for the mental health needs of an athletics department, the question of support
needs could be equally significant.
At present, collegiate student-athletes appear to be utilizing mental health services more
frequently than ever. Some documented rates of service use have included < 2% by Pierce
(1969), 9% by Bergandi and Wittig (1984), an estimated 15% by Bennett (2007), and an
estimated 25% by Johnson (2017). Whether spurring this trend or following from it, a growing
body of research has explored student-athletes’ preferences for sport psychology service
providers (e.g., Lubker et al., 2012) and mental health services (e.g., López & Levy, 2013),
suggestions for increasing mental healthcare accessibility (NCAA, 2017), and satisfaction with
service availability (Way et al., 2020). Researchers have also explored the availability of mental
health services for student-athletes from the viewpoints of athletic trainers (Sudano & Miles,
CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES
2
2017) and administrators (Connole et al., 2014; Moore, 2016), as well as through analysis of
counseling center and athletic department websites (Hayden et al., 2013). However, the
perspectives of mental health practitioners who work with student-athletes have been largely
absent from this growing body of research (Schlimmer & Chin, 2018; Moreland et al., 2018).
The vantage point of these practitioners could be an untapped source of information
regarding the mental health needs of student-athletes and the extent to which these needs are
currently being met. Furthermore, researchers have been working to identify strategies for
supporting student-athletes through their unique experiences and stressors, but a question
remains as to whether CAPS and clinical sport psychology (CSP) providers are feeling in need of
support themselves, and if so, in what ways. Before proposing steps to gather more information
about practitioner perspectives, it is necessary to first quantify the current landscape of service
availability for student-athletes, the level of demand for those services, and the experiences of
service providers (see also Appendix F).
Service Availability and Providers
NCAA Bylaws 16.4.2 and 16.4.2.1 recently required Division I Power 5 conference
(hereafter abbreviated P5) institutions and all other Division I, II, and III (DI, DII, DIII)
institutions to ensure that their student-athletes have access to mental healthcare (Brutlag Hosick,
2019; see also https://web3.ncaa.org/lsdbi/). At this important juncture it is difficult to pinpoint
the number and type of practitioners who provide mental health services to student-athletes
(Gross et al., 2020); and in order to assess any growth in service availability that follows from
these legislative changes, this would be an important time to collect baseline data about
practitioner presence across NCAA institutions. Before looking ahead to the future of service
availability, however, it may be prudent to first look back.
CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES
3
In an early study of service availability, Bergandi and Wittig (1984) polled 53 college
counseling center directors and found that 49% (n = 26) offered some form of mental health
services specifically for student-athletes. Their data did not detail what these services entailed.
Since that time, surveys of service availability have sometimes lumped clinical and applied sport
psychology services into one measured construct. Researchers have identified the presence of
clinical and/or applied services at 23.4% (Kornspan & Duve, 2006) to 39.7% (Connole et al.,
2014) of institutions across divisional levels. Sport psychology services defined as clinical in
nature have been identified in 20.5% of DI athletic training rooms (Sudano & Miles, 2017) and
32.5% of DI FBS institution counseling centers (Hayden et al., 2013). Perceived service
availability has typically been higher at DI institutions relative to DII and III institutions
(Kornspan & Duve, 2006; Connole et al., 2014; cf. Moore, 2016). When embedded services are
made available, they tend to be staffed by one practitioner (e.g., LeViness et al., 2018) who could
be working to serve a department with as many as 800 to 1,000 student-athletes (Flowers, 2007;
Carr, 2007).
Demand for Services
One third of counseling center directors recently indicated that they had waitlists in effect
for services at their clinic, with an average of 51 students waiting for services (range = 2 – 300;
LeViness et al., 2018). Researchers examining the demand for mental health services specifically
among student-athletes have done so “with considerable variability” as to what this entails
(Moreland et al., 2018, p. 64), and few have used clinical records to gauge rates of service use
among this population. In what may be the most extensive records of student-athletes’ mental
health service use, the Penn State Center for Collegiate Mental Health (CCMH) studies have
found that student-athletes comprised about 7% of campus counseling center clients over the last
CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES
4
eight years (CCMH, 2012-2019). However, with the full and demanding schedules that student
athletes frequently balance, they may not be available to utilize the campus counseling center
during its normal operating hours (Etzel et al., 2006). To provide for the unique needs of student
athletes, and when resources permit, some institutions create the specialized or embedded
services outlined above. In these instances, the demand for CSP services can steadily increase in
the years after these services are first offered (McDuff et al., 2005; Bennett, 2007; Flowers,
2007). In Chamberlain’s (2007) experience, rates of service use had only plateaued because all
available appointment times were filled. Offering an indirect clue as to what this might be like
for a practitioner, a student-athlete shared with Way and colleagues (2020) that,
There [aren’t] enough psychological services for athletes. I regularly go to [our sport
psychologist] and most of the time she is booked two weeks in advance and she
looks exhausted by the time in the day when I can see her because I’ve seen her
schedule and the athletic department is running her thin. (p. 315)
Practitioner Perspectives and Experiences
To date there has only been one study to examine practitioners’ experiences of providing
mental health services to student-athletes (Schlimmer & Chin, 2018). Apart from this, insight to
the experiences of CSP practitioners must be gleaned from a few firsthand accounts (JCSP vol.
1, iss. 3; McDuff et al., 2005; Johnson, 2017), all of which have come from the DI context. This
has neglected the experiences of mental health practitioners who work with DII and DIII student
athletes (cf. Rancourt et al., 2020), and the experiences of CAPS staff who support student
athletes at institutions that do not have access to CSP services (cf. Petrie et al., 1995).
Consequently, including the perspectives of practitioners from all levels of athletic competition
presents an important gap in the research.
CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES
5
In the absence of broader data, experiential accounts from CSP personnel show some
interesting similarities and differences to those of other practitioners in the milieu of college
counseling. For example, CAPS and CSP personnel can both experience tension and role
ambiguity with administrators (Chamberlain, 2007; Hack, 2007; Jodoin & Ayers, 2013; Johnson,
2017). Likewise, just as there can be tugs on the confidentiality of student-athletes’ mental health
service use (Bennett, 2007; Chamberlain, 2007; Etzel & Watson II, 2007; Hack, 2007; Loughran
et al., 2014; Schlimmer & Chin, 2018), maintaining client confidentiality can also be a challenge
for CAPS staff working in small campus counseling centers (Vespia, 2007) or in the context of
increasingly intrusive campus administrators (Grayson & Meilman, 2013).
Confidentiality is especially important in light of student risk factors, campus tragedies,
or high-profile cases. Clinical administrators have remarked on the increasing visibility and
scrutiny of CAPS on college campuses, particularly with students who may be a danger to
themselves or others (Watkins et al., 2012; Grayson & Meilman, 2013). Speaking to an
additional form of risk that can present for mental health practitioners who work in or with
collegiate athletics, Zillmer and Gigli (2007) shared that student-athlete conduct (e.g., hazing,
sexual misconduct, substance abuse) “can become a major problem not only for the athletic
department but also for the university’s image as a whole” (p. 220). As a result, they said, “sport
psychologists may have a special entrée within this context of reducing the risk of negative
publicity, while adding important life skills lessons to student-athletes” (p. 220; see also Bennett,
2007; Flowers, 2007).
It could be helpful to have broader data about practitioners’ experiences of risk and risk
management because of the stress it can impose. Recent research has focused on sport
psychology practitioners’ professional quality of life, coping strategies, and self-care (e.g.,
CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES
6
Cropley et al., 2016; Quartiroli et al., 2019a, 2019b), but less so on topics of practitioner mental
health and use of personal counseling. Some twenty years ago, Andersen and colleagues (2000)
suggested counseling and therapy for the personal/professional development of sport psychology
practitioners as well as for the prevention of impairment. This suggestion could still carry some
weight today, and for the broader population of collegiate mental health staff as well (Kafka,
2019). Despite the personal and professional benefits, little is known about the extent to which
sport psychology practitioners engage in their own personal therapy.
In sum, CAPS staff face a variety of challenges, as do those working within the unique
environment of athletics. Amid myriad stressors there are also many sources of enrichment,
meaning, and enjoyment for CAPS and CSP practitioners (Kadambi et al., 2010; Chamberlain,
2007; Flowers, 2007; Wolanin, 2007; Zillmer & Gigli, 2007). During an era in which more and
more attention is being drawn to the mental health needs of student-athletes, and the availability
of campus mental health services more broadly, the field could benefit from more inclusive data
about the views and experiences of practitioners who work in this context.
Purpose
Three objectives (see Table 1) contribute to the overarching purpose of this study, which
was to explore practitioner perspectives on the provision of mental health services to student
athletes in the broader context of collegiate mental health. At a historically relevant time point,
the field lacks a broad picture to illustrate who is providing mental health services to student
athletes (Gross et al., 2020), and this is especially true in the context of DII and III athletics.
Therefore, the first objective of this study was to expand upon the work of Hayden and
colleagues (2013) to identify and describe the population of CSP personnel from all NCAA
member institution websites. Within this objective, attention was devoted to the credentials and
CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES
7
clinical titles held by these practitioners, as these can be pertinent factors for student-athletes’
attitudes towards and intentions to engage in help-seeking behavior (Maniar et al., 2001; Lubker
et al., 2012; López & Levy, 2013; Woolway & Harwood, 2015; Way et al., 2020).
The second objective of this study was to describe practitioner perceptions of the demand
for mental health services among student-athletes at their institution, and the relative availability
of those services. This objective was rooted in the observation that researchers have rarely
examined demand and availability as distinct but related constructs (cf. Connole et al., 2014),
and have under-utilized the firsthand experiences of service providers (Moreland et al., 2018; cf.
Bergandi & Wittig, 1984; Schlimmer & Chin, 2018). Further, although scholars have attended to
where CSP and other mental health services are available, few have detailed where they are not
available and the need that might exist in their absence (cf. Rancourt et al., 2020). A sub
objective aims to address these omissions in extant research.
Finally, in their provision of mental health services to student-athletes, some practitioners
have commented on experiences of personal/professional support, relationships with athletics
staff/administration, and other logistical aspects of service delivery (e.g., JCSP vol. 1, iss. 3;
Schlimmer & Chin, 2018). Similar experiences have also been voiced by practitioners serving
the mental health needs of campus communities more broadly (e.g., Vespia, 2007; Jodoin &
Ayers, 2013). As such, the third objective of this study was to explore the pertinence of these
topics for a broader sample of practitioners (see Table 2). In light of rising demands for clinical
services, some have recently questioned the support that collegiate mental health staff are
receiving (e.g., Kafka, 2019). From this observation, sub-objectives included exploring
practitioner experiences at high versus low levels of service availability and what practitioners
see as current needs to facilitate their work.
CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES
8
Methods
Website Review Procedures
Building upon Hayden and colleagues (2013), CAPS and athletics websites were
reviewed for all NCAA member institutions. As listed in April, 2020 (ncaa.org/directory/), this
included 352 DI institutions (65 of which were sub-grouped as P5 conference institutions), 320
DII institutions, and 449 DIII institutions. Directories and sub-pages were analyzed for any sport
psychology staff, as well as for any description of sport psychology or mental health services for
student-athletes. The number of CAPS staff, CAPS trainees, CSP staff, CSP trainees, and applied
staff/trainees were recorded in mutually exclusive categories. Educational degrees, licensures,
and certifications were recorded for clinical/applied sport psychology personnel. Sport
psychology staff/trainees were also coded as being listed on the CAPS website, the athletics
website, or both. Email addresses were recorded for survey distribution. CSP staff/trainees were
operationally defined as practitioners who held or were pursuing a mental health degree and had
a clinical title that alluded to a role with student-athletes (clinicians listed on athletics websites
were presumed to work with student-athletes in some capacity), were a member of the
Association for Applied Sport Psychology (AASP) or a Certified Mental Performance
Consultant (CMPC), listed a sport psychology degree or concentration (clinical or applied), or
listed an interest in sport psychology or working with student-athletes in their online bio.
Applied sport psychology practitioners were identified using the same criteria, but in the absence
of a clinical degree or mental health credential.
Survey Development
The online survey for this project was developed using subjectivist epistemological
assumptions (e.g., Romm, 2007; Lincoln et al., 2011; see Appendices B & C). Recognizing the
CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES
9
co-constructed nature of data that would be collected (Romm, 2013, 2014), the survey was
written and re-written with an effort “to ‘think’ oneself into the perspective” of participants
(Fielding, 1993, p. 157). In its final draft, the survey was conversational in tone, relatively
concise, and transparent. The first section of the survey presented a series of statements based on
experiences of campus mental health and sport psychology providers that have been documented
in the academic literature (see Appendix B). Participants could agree/disagree with each
statement based on their own experiences using a five-point Likert scale (“disagree,” “slightly
disagree,” “slightly agree,” “agree,” and “can’t say from my experience”). The statements sought
to gauge participants’ experiences in a general sense (e.g., “My caseload is too large,” “My
institution promotes diversity and inclusion”) and their experiences of providing services to
student-athletes more specifically (e.g., “I could build rapport with student-athletes during my
work with them”).
The second section of the survey asked about the demand for various mental health
services specifically among student-athletes at their institution. Participants were asked to rate
the perceived demand prior to COVID-19 regardless of whether or not the services were offered
(i.e., there could have been demand for a service that was not offered). A brief note was included
to define non-clinical applied sport psychology services. Response options were “no demand,”
“low,” “moderate,” “high,” and “not sure”. Listed services included mental health counseling
offered by a sport psychology specialist, mental health counseling offered by other clinical staff,
applied sport psychology, mandated counseling (substance abuse/conduct), psychiatry, and crisis
intervention. These services were selected for inclusion based on best practice recommendations
(NCAA, 2016), emphases that campus clinics have placed on crisis intervention services
(Kitzrow, 2009; Gallagher, 2012), the high demand for psychiatric services at present (LeViness
CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES
10
et al., 2018), and the service delivery experiences of sport psychology practitioners working in
collegiate athletics (e.g., JCSP vol. 1, iss. 3; Johnson, 2017). A single item was used to assess
how practitioners thought COVID-19 impacted the demand for services among student-athletes.
Next, participants rated the perceived availability of each service for students and/or
student-athletes. Participants were asked to respond with the perceived availability prior to
COVID-19 and while considering both on campus resources and off campus referral networks
(King Lyn, 2017a). A six-point scale was used for these items: “Availability exceeded demand,”
“Availability comfortably satisfied demand,” “Demand was met but stretched available
resources,” “Demand exceeded available resources,” “Service was not offered,” and “Not sure.”
A single item was used to assess how practitioners thought COVID-19 impacted the availability
of services for students and/or student-athletes. In the final portions of the survey, participants
were invited to comment on what they were currently needing as a person/practitioner to
facilitate their work. Demographic information was collected, and, consistent with the
subjectivist epistemological approach to survey development (Romm, 2013), participants were
invited to share their feedback or any points of clarification.
Survey Recruitment
Following IRB approval (Appendix D), all sport psychology providers (clinical and
applied) identified during the website review were invited to participate in the survey. At
institutions where clinical sport psychology services were not offered or could not be discerned,
up to three mental health staff were invited to participate. In the event that CSP services were
offered exclusively through athletics, up to three CAPS staff from the institution were also
invited to participate. When CAPS had more than three practitioners, recruitment prioritized staff
members other than directors. All recruitment correspondence took place via email. After an
CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES
11
initial invitation was sent in late August, reminders were sent at 15, 28, and 42 days thereafter
until the survey closed in mid-October. To incentivize participation, practitioners were invited to
enter a random drawing for one of six Mastercard gift cards (one valued at $100, five valued at
$20 each) and/or opt-in to receive a synopsis of results from the study.
Data Analysis
Research questions and analyses are summarized in Table 1. For the first objective of this
study, frequencies of sport psychology personnel identified during the website review were
reported in a cross-tabulated format by division level (P5, DI, DII, DIII). Clinical titles and
credentials listed for CSP staff/trainees were descriptively summarized. For the second objective,
the perceived demand for and availability of each service was cross-tabulated by NCAA division
level as well as by the proportion of clinical hours that practitioners reported spending with
student-athletes/athletics. Using the sub-sample of participants who indicated that sport
psychology services were not offered at their institutions, perceived demand for those services
was cross-tabulated by division level. For the final objective, data for each experiential statement
were descriptively analyzed. To examine potential differences in practitioner experiences at
higher and lower levels of perceived service availability, two sub-samples were created based on
the number of services that practitioners indicated were stretched or exceeded by demand at their
institutions. Independent-sample t-tests were used to compare high and low availability groups
on their experiences of satisfaction with professional development, having reasonable on call
expectations, having caseloads that were too large, engaging in enough self-care, feeling
overstretched by client risk factors, and wanting more emotional support for their work as
practitioners. As the independent variable of high versus low service availability was run on six
dependent variables, a Bonferroni correction set alpha at .008.
CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES
12
Qualitative data was analyzed using inductive thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006).
This was an iterative and recursive process that involved building familiarity with the data set as
a whole, coding distinct meaning units within participant responses, and identifying themes
across participants’ responses (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Brief notes and memos were recorded to
serve as an audit trail during analysis (e.g., Tracy, 2010). Coding primarily took place at a
semantic level, and memos documented inferences made about latent content that moved beyond
the surface of participant responses. In striving to provide a credible and trustworthy account of
the data, an effort was made to provide a thick and transparent report of participants’ experiences
(Tracy, 2010). Appendix E details qualitative data analysis in a theme-by-theme progression.
However, in the results section that follows, qualitative data was integrated to add detail and
specificity to the broader generality of quantitative data across this sample of participants.
Results
Practitioner Frequencies (RQ 1a)
Using the operational definitions outlined in the methods section, clinical sport
psychology (CSP) staff were identified at 271 (24.2%) institutions, CSP trainees were identified
at 64 (5.7%) institutions, and applied sport psychology staff/trainees (with non-clinical
sport/performance psychology backgrounds) were identified at 49 (4.4%) institutions. Only 20
institutions (1.8%) listed both CSP and applied practitioners. In total, the website review
identified 507 CSP staff, 85 CSP trainees, and 68 applied staff/trainees. Across divisions, the
number of schools with any, one, two, three, four, or five or more practitioners in each category
are presented in Table 3. All (100%) P5 institutions had at least one CSP staff member listed,
relative to 42% of DI institutions, 12% of DII institutions, and 11% of DIII institutions (see
Table 3). Whereas no DIII institutions had more than two CSP staff, over half (55.4%) of P5
CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES
13
institutions had at least three. On a smaller scale, the listing of CSP trainees followed a similar
trend as CSP staff when compared across divisions. Applied practitioners were listed at 1 – 2%
of DII and DIII institutions and about 10% of DI and P5 institutions.
CSP Titles and Training (RQs 1b and 1c)
Of all 592 CSP staff/trainees identified during the website review, 40% had clinical titles
that referenced sport psychology or work with athletics (see extended results for additional detail
on how titles were coded). Cross-tabulated by division, greater proportions of CSP staff/trainees
had clinical titles that referenced sport psychology or athletics at P5 (48.2%) and DI (40.8%)
institutions relative to DII (29.4%) and DIII (20.7%) institutions. Over half (56.6%) of CSP
practitioners identified during the website review held a doctoral degree, 23.7% listed a master’s
degree as their highest level of education, and 3.4% held degrees in medicine (i.e., MD/DO).
Trainees included both doctoral and master’s students (11.0% and 3.2% of all CSP practitioners,
respectively). Terminal or current degrees were not listed for 2.2% of CSP practitioners. When
biographical information was available online, CSP staff/trainees listed their highest degrees in a
variety of disciplines, the most common of which were clinical (30.9%) and counseling
psychology (22.5%), social work (10.1%) and counseling/clinical mental health (8.9%). CSP
practitioners identified during the website review were cross-referenced in CMPC and AASP
membership listings. Of all CSP staff/trainees, 13.7% held CMPC status and another 7.4% were
current AASP members who were not certified. Across divisions, there were similar proportions
of CSP practitioners with CMPC status at P5 (17.0%), DI (14.5%), and DII (13.7%) institutions
compared to DIII institutions (2.4%).
CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES
14
Survey Descriptives
From recruitment (n = 2,819), 495 completed surveys were returned, along with another
20 partially completed surveys (> 30% complete) for a total response rate of 18.3%. Of all 515
respondents, 0.4% preferred to self-describe their gender identity, 1.0% identified as nonbinary,
27.6% identified as men, and 66.2% identified as women. Participants’ racial/ethnic backgrounds
included Native American (0.2%), Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander (0.2%), Asian
American/Asian (2.7%), Hispanic or Latino/Latina/Latinx (3.7%), biracial, multiracial, or
multiethnic backgrounds (4.3%), Black or African American (12.6%), and White (70.3%).
Respondents included senior staff members (31.7%), clinical staff members (52.9%), and
trainees (4.0%). Another 11.3% of survey respondents described their role using other
descriptors. On average, participants worked 36.5 hours/week (range = 3 – 70) and represented
P5 (n = 74, 15.3%), DI (n = 146, 30.2%), DII (n = 96, 19.9%), and DIII institutions (n = 167,
34.6%). About half of the sample reported that they were affiliated with athletics as either
trainees/employees of the institution (n = 210, 42.7%) or external consultants (n = 44, 8.9%).
During a typical semester, participants spent about 30% of their clinical hours with student
athletes (M = 29.61, Range = 0 – 100). The median proportion of clinical hours with student
athletes was 20% (IQR = 10 – 40). When asked about specialties or areas of expertise (open
ended), 350 participants responded. The most common specialties listed included trauma (n = 98,
28.0%), sport/performance psychology and/or student-athletes (n = 84, 24.0%), anxiety or mood
disorders (n = 76, 21.7%), specific modalities or theoretical approaches (n = 72, 20.6%),
disordered eating or body image (n = 47, 13.4%), and alcohol or other drug counseling (n = 43,
12.3%). Eighteen respondents (5.1%) identified with a specialty in crisis counseling/suicidality
and five (1.4%) identified with a specialty in psychiatry.
CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES
15
Perceived Demand for Services Among Student-Athletes (RQ 2a)
Participants were asked about the perceived demand for various mental health services
among student-athletes prior to the COVID-19 pandemic. Respondents saw general mental
health counseling as the most in-demand service among student-athletes (see Figure 1), and less
than 1% of all respondents saw no demand for this service. Perceived demand was higher for
CSP than for applied sport psychology, but practitioners appeared to be less certain about the
demand for these services. One quarter indicated that they were unsure about the demand for
CSP and one third felt unsure about the demand for applied services. Similar proportions of
practitioners saw moderate-to-high demand for CSP (48.3%) and psychiatry (46.7%) services
among student-athletes. Likewise, similar proportions of practitioners saw moderate-to-high
demand for applied sport psychology (36.1%) and mandated counseling (substance or conduct
related, 35.7%). Of note, 53.3% of respondents perceived a moderate to high demand for crisis
intervention services among student-athletes. Participants were also asked about how they
thought the COVID-19 pandemic impacted the overall demand for mental health services among
student-athletes. Relative to perceived demand pre-pandemic, 35.3% of participants saw
increased demand, 12.0% saw decreased demand, 18.0% saw no change, and 34.7% were
unsure.
Cross-Tabulations for Demand
Perceived demand frequencies (i.e., the count of high, moderate, low, no demand, and not
sure responses) were cross-tabulated by NCAA division and by the proportion of clinical hours
that participants reported spending with student-athletes. For a more parsimonious display of
cross-tabulations, P5 and DI status were combined into one categorical grouping, as were DII
and DIII status. Three categories were developed for the proportion of clinical hours that
CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES
16
practitioners spent with student-athletes/athletics based on the quartiles of data for the variable:
practitioners who spent the least amount of time with student-athletes (defined as less than 10%
of clinical hours with student-athletes, corresponding with the first quartile), practitioners who
spent a moderate amount of time with student-athletes (defined as 10% to 40% of clinical hours
with student-athletes, corresponding with the IQR), and practitioners who spent the largest
amount of time with student-athletes (defined as at least 41% of clinical hours with student
athletes, corresponding with the fourth quartile).
Demand Cross-Tab: CSP. Within the P5/DI grouping, the proportion of practitioners
who saw a high demand for CSP services increased steadily as they spent more of their time with
student-athletes (see dark gray highlighted cells, Table 4). Among participants who spent the
least amount of time with student-athletes, 17.0% saw high demand for CSP services as
compared to 34.8% of practitioners who spent a moderate amount of time with student-athletes,
and 48.6% of practitioners who spent the most time with student-athletes. This increase was far
less drastic in the DII/DIII grouping, and a lower proportion of practitioners saw high demand
for CSP services (see light gray highlighted cells, Table 4). The proportion of P5/DI practitioners
who were unsure about the demand for CSP services decreased in a relatively linear fashion
moving from low to moderate to large amounts of time with student-athletes (see dark gray
cells). On the contrary, the proportion of DII/DIII practitioners who were unsure about demand
increased slightly among those who spent more time with student-athletes (see light gray cells).
Finally, compared to the overall proportion for the sample (see purple cell), there was relatively
little variation in the proportions of practitioners who saw moderate demand for CSP services
across divisional groupings and time spent with student-athletes (lighter purple cells).
CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES
17
Demand Cross-Tab: Applied Sport Psychology. Overall, a smaller proportion of
practitioners saw high demand for applied sport psychology services, but demand was
heightened in the P5/DI context relative to the DII/DIII context (see dark blue highlighted cells
relative to light blue highlighted cells, Table 4). For instance, of participants who spent the least
amount of time with student-athletes, 27.7% saw moderate-to-high demand in the P5/DI
grouping relative to 18.5% in the DII/DIII grouping. Among those who spent the most time with
student-athletes, 79.2% saw moderate-to-high demand in the P5/DI grouping relative to 31.6% in
the DII/DIII grouping. Across divisional groupings and the amount of time spent with student
athletes, shifts in the proportions of practitioners who were unsure about the demand for applied
services followed a similar pattern as for CSP services (see dark blue cells relative to light blue
cells).
Demand Cross-Tab: General Counseling. The proportions of practitioners who saw a
high demand for general counseling services among student-athletes were relatively similar
when comparing divisional groupings and appeared to increase as practitioners spent more of
their clinical hours with student-athletes (see yellow relative to green relative to red highlighted
cells, Table 4). Of those who spent the least time with student-athletes, high demand for general
counseling was reported by 25.5% of P5/DI participants and 29.6% of DII/DIII participants. This
increased to 41.7% of P5/DI participants and 47.4% of DII/DIII participants who spent the most
time with student-athletes.
Demand Cross-Tab: Mandated Counseling. Within the DII/DIII grouping, the
proportion of practitioners who saw moderate-to-high demand for mandated counseling
increased steadily as they spent more of their time with student-athletes (see dark red highlighted
cells, Table 4). Moderate-to-high demand for mandated counseling was reported by 25.9% of
CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES
18
DII/DIII practitioners who spent the least time with student-athletes, 34.9% of DII/DIII
practitioners who spent a moderate amount of time with student-athletes, and 44.7% of DII/DIII
practitioners who spent the most time with student-athletes. There was a different pattern of
responses in the P5/DI grouping. Specifically, the proportion of practitioners who saw moderate
to-high demand for mandated counseling was lowest among those who spent the most time with
student-athletes (see light red cells, Table 4).
Demand Cross-Tab: Crisis Intervention. As a final note, among practitioners who
spent the most time with student-athletes, a greater proportion of those in the DII/DIII grouping
(71.0%) saw moderate-to-high demand for crisis intervention services relative to those in the
P5/DI grouping (45.8%; see dark orange relative to light orange highlighted cells, Table 4).
Perceived Demand for Sport Psychology Services When Not Offered (RQ 2b)
A total of 214 participants indicated that CSP services were not offered at their
institution, about a third (32.2%) of whom saw moderate to high demand for those services. A
slightly greater proportion (40.2%) saw no or low demand for CSP services, and another 27.6%
felt unsure about demand. The demand for CSP services (again, when unavailable) was cross
tabulated by division level. Nine participants from P5 institutions reported that CSP services
were unavailable (recall that, per operational definitions used during the website review, all P5
institutions had at least one CSP practitioner), along with 48 DI participants, 53 DII participants,
and 99 DIII participants (five who indicated that CSP services were unavailable did not report
their institution’s division level). Of these respondents, 22.2% of practitioners from P5
institutions perceived moderate-to-high demand for CSP services, as did 43.8% from DI
institutions, 32.1% from DII institutions, and 27.3% from DIII institutions.
CAMPUS MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVES
19
Of 133 participants who indicated that applied sport psychology services were not
available at their inst
A Qualitative Study of College Athletes’ Experiences of the COVID-19 Pandemic : A Qualitative Study of College Athletes’ Experiences of the
COVID-19 Pandemic
Carra Johnson
West Virginia University, Cj0011@mix.wvu.edu
Follow this and additional works at: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd
Part of the Psychology Commons, and the Sports Studies Commons
Recommended Citation
Johnson, Carra, "A Qualitative Study of College Athletes’ Experiences of the COVID-19 Pandemic" (2021).
Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports. 10161.
https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd/10161
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A Qualitative Study of College Athletes’ Experiences of the COVID-19 Pandemic
Carra G. Johnson
Dissertation submitted
to the College of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences
at West Virginia University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements of
Doctor of Philosophy in
Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology
Jack C. Watson II, PhD, Chair
Danielle Davidov, PhD
Damien Clement, PhD
Scott Barnicle, PhD
Department of Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology
Morgantown, West Virginia
2021
Keywords: sport psychology, collegiate athletes, COVID-19, pandemic, phenomenology,
thematic analysis
Copyright 2021 Carra Johnson
ABSTRACT
A Qualitative Study of College Athletes’ Experiences of the COVID-19 Pandemic
Carra Johnson
The novel coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic took a toll on collegiate athletics, as all in-person
sport activity was shut down temporarily, and competition schedules were heavily altered. The
purpose of this phenomenological study was to develop an understanding of how Division I
collegiate athletes experienced the pause in college sports that resulted from the COVID-19
crisis, during the first seven to nine months of the pandemic (depending on the time of
interview). Between October and December 2020, eleven participants (six females, five males)
engaged in individual, semi-structured interviews in which they were asked to describe how the
COVID-19 pandemic affected their lives relative to their sport participation. A three-member
research team conducted a thematic analysis of the interview data to identify primary themes and
subthemes. Three primary themes were identified that captured the pandemic’s impact on the
athletes: (a) Typical Structure: Gone, (b) Athletic Identity: Decentralized, and (c) New Choices:
More Decisions. The findings align with athletes’ reported experiences during the COVID-19
pandemic in previous qualitative studies, while also adding novelty by focusing on collegiate
athletes and capturing their unique experiences during the pandemic. Athletes’ experiences are
discussed in relation to motivational theories, athletic identity, and retirement from sport. The
author also presents several practical implications for athletes, coaches, support staff, and leaders
within Division I college athletics.
COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC iii
Acknowledgements
So many people have played some sort of role in my ultimate completion of this little paper, I’m
not sure I’ll ever be able to acknowledge them all. From every faculty member in the SEPP
program, to every barista-turned-confidant in every Starbucks in Morgantown, to the crew of
monks + visitors + Richard at Bhavana Society, to the always-joyous Trader Joe’s employees in
Pittsburgh, to amazing friends all over the country, it’s taken a serious village to get here. But
within that village, I’ve had some particularly impactful guides and neighbors:
DR. WATSON. I will never forget your words when I answered the phone that Monday
morning in February 2016: “Are you ready for four more winters in West Virginia?” Turns out,
no, I wasn’t. In so many ways, I wasn’t. Thank you for taking a chance on me, trusting that I
was worth your time and energy as an advisor, and giving me the opportunity to be part of this
program. It was the hardest experience of my life, and as a result I have grown and learned more
from it than anything else—as a student, instructor, researcher, and person. That’s your major,
semi-indirect impact on my life. Directly, I’ve become a much better researcher, writer,
instructor, and critical thinker through all of our conversations, projects, and back-and-forth
feedback. I’ve learned to take criticism more effectively, and have also learned when it makes
sense to stand my ground and provide rationale for my perspective when we’re not in
agreement. You have had a major impact in ways that have molded me indefinitely, and I hope I
was worth taking the chance. Thanks for everything.
DANIELLE. This project, first of all, would have been a much different experience for me
without your guidance and qualitative expertise—and would not be as strong as it is now. I left
every one of our meetings with far more clarity than I had going into them. Through your
support and guidance, I have learned so much about qualitative research and my confidence as a
qual researcher has grown immensely. However, far beyond this dissertation, you are a model of
how I hope to operate and communicate as a professional. I have come to respect and look up to
you more than I can express. Thank you for being a part of this.
DR. CLEMENT. I think you have been such a cool, unique addition to my committee. Your
expertise in injury is technically so different from my main focus of the pandemic, and yet
unbelievably relevant. And while I’m glad to have your expertise, I’m most grateful for the
perspective and positive energy that you bring to whatever room (virtual or in person) that you’re
in. Since first interviewing with you during interview weekend five years ago, you’ve had a way
of making me feel supported while simultaneously pushing me with critical questions. It’s an
incredible combo that I am inspired to emulate. Thank you for bringing it all to this project.
DR. BARNICLE. Throughout my time at WVU, if I knew nothing else, I always knew that I
had your unwavering support and encouragement. Through many years of tension and
discomfort, some of the only times I felt at ease were during our interactions—whether it was
crossing paths in the hallway or discussing teaching techniques in a Friday afternoon
seminar. As I started to pursue this project, I decided that I wanted to feel supported and
encouraged rather than tense and pressured—I put plenty of pressure on myself already. While I
have always valued your feedback and the expertise that comes with your background in applied
work, nothing has meant more than knowing you’re in my corner. A thousand times thank you.
COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC iv
MATT CAMPBELL. I really don’t know where to start in expressing my gratitude. I’m truly
overwhelmed by the way you have so quickly, willingly, and kindly jumped onto the tail end of
this project when I reached out. You’ve been unbelievably kind, supportive, and easy to work
with in the small but wildly important sliver of time during which I’ve asked for your help. I’m
convinced that academia, and the world, would benefit from having more people like you.
Following your example, I am inspired to hopefully be one of those people, too. I can’t thank
you enough!
KATE & JAY. I address you here as my research team, but you have also been incredible
friends to me for some of my most challenging years. How incredible (or maybe, not
particularly shocking?) that two of the people in the program who I felt best understood me also
turned out to be absolutely key players in my dissertation. In contributing so much time and
energy to this tedious project, I’ve compared your selflessness to the selflessness of organ
donors—and I stand by the comparison. I don’t know why anyone agrees to get involved with
something like this, and it was so important to me to do this right, so there really wasn’t any
cutting corners. I asked so much of you both, and you both generously and genuinely committed
(and, taught me so much throughout the process). I’m so proud of what we’ve done here—the
depth and the big-picture perspective that we achieved in our analyses seem to be unmatched in
similar studies. I attribute that to the beautiful way that each of you looks at the world—
thoughtfully, critically, through lenses that effectively zoom in and out to capture the whole
story. It is because of this, along with your kindness and authenticity, that I consider you some
of my most cherished friends regardless of the distance between us. For every conversation and
adventure from the moment I arrived in Morgantown—thank you for all of it.
REEN. As we’ve gotten older, I’ve realized one of my greatest joys in life is making you laugh
(even—and maybe especially—when it’s at my expense). Like the time I brought up
hermeneutic phenomenology during fam dinner (“what did you just say??”). Thank you for
bringing the joy, challenge, and humor to my research papers the last few years—fingers crossed
this is the one that gets us published! And, a big thank you for your support and encouragement
throughout this process—it’s so subtle, but means everything to me. I am so impressed by you
and how you live your life, and I hope to make you even half as proud of me as I am of you. I
love you. –Doc
DAD. Thank you for continuing to be the best listener I know, and for helping me see that
everything isn’t as serious as I sometimes feel or act like it is, better than anyone else can. This
whole process—moving, school, and this project—was tough on me, and when it felt like too
much to handle, you were usually my first call. You’ve been my most steady, reliable source of
support over these years, and I’m so fortunate that I could trust you to pick up the phone nine out
of every 10 times I called (even though you don’t think I call that much!). I’m not sure if I’d be
at this point, finishing this up, without the consistent safe space you’ve provided. Love, #1.
MOM. You’ve answered more tearful phone calls in these years than any parent should have to
endure. Thank you for your endless support, especially through the moments when I know my
hurt caused you hurt. “If you’re that unhappy, just come home.” I know you meant it literally,
but somehow it pushed me the other way and ultimately resulted in a completed doctoral
COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC v
dissertation. Maybe it’s not super surprising, considering a lot of this drive, strength, and work
ethic comes from you (and grandma). I love you so much.
TJ. You landed in my life while I was deep in this little school project, and wow, what a critical
time. I’m so grateful for your direct support—giving me the space to work, being an unofficial
“critical friend” in the analysis process, going on coffee shop work hangs, making sure I was
always fed. However, I’m most grateful for the intangible balance that you’ve brought to my
world—a balance that gives me clearer perspective on what’s important to me, and that (maybe
counterintuitively) has helped me focus deeply on my research at a time when I really needed
to. I think the world of you—the natural, not-tainted-by-man world—and can’t wait for my turn
to be the “dissertation spouse.” I love you.
ERIKA. I believe this means that we’ve successfully met the terms of the Hancock Pact (or
however pacts work)! It’s been nearly five years since that drive to NYC, wondering out loud if
we could make it through this process. I’m so proud of you for holding up your end of the pact,
and so grateful for your relentless support and encouragement as I’ve sought to hold up my
own. Hancock Pact is forever, though. We were absolutely meant to be on this journey together,
and you are forever embedded into the fabric of my life and my heart. Thank you for every walk
and talk (in person or cross-country), for every life-giving adventure—from snagging wooden
pallets to jumping out of a plane, for pushing me even without realizing you were, for your
wisdom—in research and in life. I love you tons.
SOFIA, MY FIFTH COMMITTEE MEMBER. This project doesn’t exist without you. I
remember exactly where I was as I told you about this idea over the phone, feeling defeated and
not wanting to propose one more dissertation idea. “What’s the worst that could happen?” you
said, encouraging me to propose this “college athletes’ experiences of COVID” thing. This
doesn’t even scratch the surface, though. You have become such a force in my life, and the last
few years would have looked entirely different without you. Te quiero muchisimo (y, crees que
alguien va leer más que esta página?).
JAMIE. Thank you for being my home away from Morgantown. I don’t know if I would be at
this point without you, letting me crash your Washington Heights apartment whenever I wanted
(needed) during my first couple of years. Your love, care, and empathy are truly second to none,
and I needed it more than ever every time I popped up in NYC—more than I even knew at the
time. I am in love with every memory we’ve created there together. So many miles, so much
food! I love you very much.
V. In the midst of this project (and pandemic), you became my favorite distraction and most
wonderful supporter (although, you’ve been that for over a decade). Thank you for all of the
long talks, long drives, unplanned adventures, life perspective, and even your help with
recruitment. You have supported this venture in so many different ways, directly and indirectly,
and I add it to the long list of reasons why you’re my favorite person who was never actually my
teacher. Love, Bonita Girl.
ACUP. Thank you for your support throughout this journey. AC—a text, phone call, or seeing
you on the East Coast was always grounding and felt like home at times when I felt unsettled and
COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC vi
very much not “at home.” UP—your genuine interest in my research, classes, and progress has
always meant so much, because it takes a real kind and curious soul to listen to—let alone ask
questions about—research and academics. And while I appreciate all of the ways that you both
support me, backyard graduations may be the greatest. They have become my favorite events,
and the thought and care that you’ve put into them over the years is unbelievable. If this project
and this degree are worth finishing for any reason, it’s definitely the backyard grad! Can’t wait.
Love you.
GRAMS & GRAMPS. It has meant so much to have you witness some of the important parts
of this multi-year process. It is one of the best feelings in the world to know I’ve made you
proud, and while I know it doesn’t require a doctorate degree, I still hope you are proud of the
work I’ve put into it. During my time in school, talking to you guys was always so
encouraging. Our phone calls lifted my spirits whenever I wasn’t feeling great about my work or
myself, and often reminded me that I was actually doing okay after all. That I was loved and that
you were proud no matter what. Thank you for loving me so unconditionally. You’re the best
grandparents anyone could ask for, I love you.
THE ATHLETES. Last but possibly the most important, this study doesn’t exist without the
college athletes who agreed to participate and share their stories. I cared about this project
before starting the interview process, but I cared on such a deeper level after talking to each of
these individuals. Their investment in the project fueled me to stay invested when the work felt
tedious. Their willingness to share their experiences with me stoked my determination to present
their collective story as accurately as possible, which made me a better researcher and made this
a better dissertation.
COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC vii
Table of Contents
A Qualitative Study of A Qualitative Study of College Athletes’ Experiences of the COVID-19
Pandemic .........................................................................................................................................1
Changes to College Sports due to COVID-19.............................................................................1
Extension of Athletic Eligibility..............................................................................................3
Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Athletes.........................................................................4
Changes to Sport Training.......................................................................................................4
Impact on Athletes’ Mental Health and Well-Being...............................................................6
Current Study...............................................................................................................................8
Methods...........................................................................................................................................9
Participants..................................................................................................................................9
Procedures .................................................................................................................................10
Data Analysis.........................................................................................................................11
Trustworthiness .....................................................................................................................12
Results ...........................................................................................................................................13
Typical Structure: Gone ............................................................................................................13
Competition Schedules Unknown, and Timelines for Return Became Moving Targets ......14
Athletes Removed from Typical Sport Environments During Mass Quarantine..................16
COVID-19 Safety Measures Implemented Upon Return to Sport........................................17
Team Dynamics Altered........................................................................................................19
Athletic Identity: Decentralized ................................................................................................21
More Time to Focus on Responsibilities and Life Outside of Sport.....................................22
Opportunity to Explore New Activities and Find New Purpose ...........................................23
New Choices: More Decisions..................................................................................................24
Managing Training During Quarantine .................................................................................24
Decisions About Future Due to Additional Year of Eligibility.............................................25
Discussion and Implications..........................................................................................................27
Limitations and Directions for Future Research ...........................................................................35
Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................36
Appendix A: Extended Literature Review ....................................................................................53
Overview of COVID-19 ............................................................................................................53
Disasters: Characteristics and Psychological Impact ................................................................54
Epidemics: Characteristics and Psychological Impact ..........................................................56
Disruptions to Sport Participation: Injuries, Forced Retirement, and Olympic Boycott...........60
COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC viii
Athletes’ Experiences of Sport Injury ...................................................................................61
Athletes’ Experiences of Forced Retirement Due to Deselection or Team Elimination.......74
Changes to Competitive Sport in Response to COVID-19 .......................................................79
Professional Sports................................................................................................................79
Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Athletes.......................................................................95
Impact of Pandemic on Sport Training and Physical Activity ..............................................95
Athletes’ Initial Responses to Changes.................................................................................99
Impact of Pandemic on Mental Health and Well-Being......................................................101
Appendix B: Extended Methods .................................................................................................117
Ontology ..................................................................................................................................117
Epistemology...........................................................................................................................117
Positionality.............................................................................................................................118
COVID-19 Experience ........................................................................................................119
Experience as a College Athlete..........................................................................................122
Experience as a College Coach ...........................................................................................124
Methodology............................................................................................................................124
Participants..............................................................................................................................126
Sample Size .........................................................................................................................128
Procedures ...............................................................................................................................130
Data Collection....................................................................................................................131
Data Analysis...........................................................................................................................134
Research Question 1 ............................................................................................................134
Research Question 2 ............................................................................................................137
Trustworthiness ...................................................................................................................140
Appendix C: Extended Results and Discussion ..........................................................................143
Athletes’ Responses to COVID-19 .........................................................................................144
Comparisons Between Athletes’ Responses to COVID-19 and Sport Injury .........................148
Athlete’s Direct Comparisons Between Injury and COVID-19 Experiences .....................149
Comparison of Athletes’ Responses to COVID-19 and the Integrated Model of Sport Injury
.............................................................................................................................................160
Conclusion...................................................................................................................................165
Appendix D: Brief Recruitment Message ...................................................................................167
Appendix E: Alignment of Research Questions and Interview Questions..................................168
Appendix F: Semi-Structured Interview Guide...........................................................................169
Appendix G: Tables and Figures.................................................................................................171
COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC ix
Appendix H: Reflexive Journal...................................................................................................180
Appendix I: Extended References...............................................................................................197
COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 1
A Qualitative Study of College Athletes’ Experiences of the COVID-19 Pandemic
On January 30, 2020, the World Health Organization declared the outbreak of the novel
coronavirus (COVID-19) a public health emergency of international concern. As a result,
systems within the United States were altered to an unimaginable degree—including collegiate
sports. As institutions of higher education rapidly transitioned to online learning and eliminated
in-person engagements in the spring of 2020, and professional sports leagues immediately shut
down, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) followed a similar trajectory by
shutting down all athletic activities because of the quickly growing pandemic.
Changes to College Sports due to COVID-19
Prior to making any system-wide changes or cancellations, the NCAA formed the
COVID-19 Advisory Panel in March 2020. This panel consisted of NCAA chief medical officer
Dr. Brian Hainline, seven experts from the fields of medicine, public health, and security, and
four former or current student-athletes. In early March, the advisory panel suggested that athletic
events not be cancelled; however, within two weeks this perspective changed as COVID-19
cases and deaths increased rapidly throughout the country. On March 19th, the NCAA cancelled
all upcoming winter 2019-2020 and spring 2020 sport championships—including the highlyprofitable NCAA men’s and women’s basketball tournaments (Hale, 2020). By cancelling all
remaining championships, all sports were rendered out-of-season for the remainder of the 2019-
2020 academic year. Further, due to social distancing measures and moratoriums on group
gatherings, athletes could not partake in supervised physical workouts (National Collegiate
Athletic Association, 2019). As a result, Division I athletes were only allowed to participate in
up to eight hours per week of “virtual nonphysical countable athletically related activities” for
the remainder of the season (National Collegiate Athletic Association, 2020a). Many collegiate
COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 2
athletes had relocated to live with family members at this point, as all academic and athletic
commitments were occurring virtually (National Collegiate Athletic Association, 2020c; Petrie et
al., 2020).
Transitioning into the summer of 2020, college sports remained inactive in regard to inperson interactions as colleges and universities remained closed to students and courses
continued to be administered online. However, on May 20th, the NCAA voted to allow all
Division I athletes and coaches to voluntarily return to their campuses for in-person athletic
activities beginning June 1, 2020 (Hosick, 2020b). Although the NCAA provided continuallyupdated recommendations and a checklist for athletic programs regarding resocialization
(National Collegiate Athletic Association, n.d.; National Collegiate Athletic Association, 2020a),
discretion was ultimately left to each school to determine how they would manage the process
(e.g., access to on-campus facilities, group size, measures taken to limit spread of the virus)
based upon state and local regulations (Hosick, 2020a). While all in-person athletic activity was
voluntary at this time, the NCAA eventually allowed for the implementation of mandatory
practice and training once again—beginning with football and basketball (men’s and women’s)
in July 2020. However, at this time it remained unclear whether upcoming collegiate sport
seasons would take place at all due to the ongoing pandemic and the associated safety concerns.
While the continual spread of the COVID-19 virus remained a concern, some professional sports
organizations made logistical modifications to hold competitions by late summer (Axisa &
Anderson, 2020; Reynolds, 2020; Gregory, 2020). However, as the fall season approached for
collegiate sports, athletic conferences began to reduce the number of competitions that would
take place or cancelled seasons entirely (The Ivy League, 2020; Kilgore, 2020). The NCAA
eventually followed suit and in August cancelled fall championships, although member schools
COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 3
who chose to engage in athletic competitions could still do so (National Collegiate Athletic
Association, 2020b).
Entering the fall of 2020 and continuing into the following spring, pandemic-related
restrictions began to ease a bit as evidenced by some American colleges and universities
returning to in-person or hybrid instruction (C2i Dashboard, n.d.). Early in the fall, the NCAA
rescheduled fall sport championships to take place in the spring of 2021 rather than cancelling
them altogether (DI Council approves changes to FCS championship, n.d.; Johnson, 2020). For
fall sports (all but Football Bowl Subdivision [FBS] teams), the offseason and competition
season were flipped because of this decision. However, the NCAA Division I FBS—the top
level of college football, made up of 10 athletic conferences—operates separately from the
NCAA. Therefore, each member conference independently determined whether they would
move forward with a football season in fall 2020. This decision had major financial
implications, as FBS teams generate a reported 48% to 64% of the income for Power Five
athletic departments each year (Dochterman, 2020). Ultimately, FBS conferences held shortened
football seasons that started later than usual in the fall; most played conference-only games to
reduce travel and contact between athletes. Despite efforts to protect against the virus, over the
course of the season 139 games were canceled or postponed due to COVID-19 outbreaks (Cobb
et al., 2020).
Extension of Athletic Eligibility
As a result of cancelled championships and heavily modified seasons, the NCAA granted
an additional year of athletic eligibility to athletes who were eligible to compete in spring 2020,
fall 2020, or winter 2020-2021. However, this extension was not granted to winter sport athletes
who competed in the 2019-2020 season because although some of their championships were
COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 4
canceled due to the pandemic, they all still completed most of the season prior to the pandemic.
Despite the NCAA’s approved extensions, member schools were not required to honor this, nor
were they required to provide the same amount of financial aid that athletes had been receiving
previously. Multiple universities opted not to honor the eligibility extension (Pickman, 2020;
West, 2020), and due to a major reduction in NCAA revenue distribution to its member schools
in 2020, reductions in financial aid have manifested in fewer athletic scholarships available for
incoming freshmen (Ngo, 2020; Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, 2021).
Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Athletes
The changes that have resulted from the COVID-19 pandemic have affected athletes
physically, psychologically, and emotionally. The period of mass quarantine—during which
Americans were expected to maintain social distance by staying primarily in their households—
has been described as a “critical pause” for athletes in which their lives came to a standstill and
they made temporary changes as they waited for their lives to “return to normal” (WhitcombKhan et al., 2021). For elite athletes, this period was commonly laden with a sense of loss: loss
of sport training, physical conditioning, athletic identity, motivation to engage with daily
activities, consistent routine, and support (emotional, technical and social; Gupta & McCarthy,
2021; Whitcomb-Khan et al., 2021). Further, the “relatively aimless” nature of this mass
quarantine was highly incongruent with elite athletes’ typical structured environments and
schedules (Gupta & McCarthy, 2021). Athletes also experienced uncertainty about their athletic
careers, unclear when or if they would compete again as their return to sport was so dependent
on the ever-changing landscape of the pandemic (Whitcomb-Khan et al., 2021).
Changes to Sport Training
COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 5
One change brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic was the alteration of athletes’
sport training and engagement in physical activity. In the first months of the pandemic most
Division I athletes reportedly engaged in regular vigorous activity—many for more than an hour
per day (Petrie et al., 2020). However, very few were able to maintain the training routines they
had prior to mass quarantine, and training frequency and time dropped considerably (Bowes et
al., 2020; Izzicupo et al., 2021; Jagim et al., 2020). While athletes spent less time than usual
engaging in strength and conditioning, mobility, and flexibility training, the greatest reduction
was seen in sport-specific training as athletes reported a 6.5-hour reduction per week in this area
(Jagim et al., 2020). The impact that the pandemic had on athletes’ sport training is attributable
to various logistical factors, as well as emotional, psychological, and motivational changes.
A lack of access to training facilities contributed to the reported decline in collegiate
athletes’ training regimen. Local regulations, facility closures, and lack of access to necessary
resources were by far the greatest barriers to training cited by Division I athletes (Petrie et al.,
2020). Athletes did not have access to their college or university training facilities because they
relocated and/or the facilities closed due to the pandemic, and local safety regulations led gyms
and training facilities to close their doors for varying stretches of time. As a result, many
athletes did not have access to the equipment necessary to engage in or maximize their training.
Another barrier to training was the lack of access that athletes had to coaches (in-person or
virtually, National Collegiate Athletic Association, 2020b). Although many athletes received
virtual support from their sport coaches and strength and conditioning coaches while they trained
independently, it is likely that the amount of contact and programming varied between coaches
(Jagim et al., 2020; Peña et al., 2021) as did access to appropriate training facilities/equipment.
COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 6
Athletes’ training regimens and levels of physical activity during the COVID-19
pandemic also appeared to be influenced by internal, individual factors. Challenging emotions
seemed to limit the extent to which athletes engaged in training during the pandemic, as Division
I athletes cited fear of exposure to the virus, stress or anxiety, and sadness or depression as
barriers to training (National Collegiate Athletic Association, 2020c; Petrie et al., 2020). While
not assessed directly, in many cases these emotional responses were likely driven by cognitive
appraisals about the severity, danger, and impact of the virus—an important psychological
component that may have ultimately impacted athletes’ training as well. Finally, training
motivation changed for athletes during the mass quarantine. Specifically, motivation to train for
sport reportedly decreased (Jagim et al., 2020), and athletes became more inclined to train to
avoid physical regression rather than to strive for improvement as was more common prior to the
pandemic (Mascret, 2020).
Impact on Athletes’ Mental Health and Well-Being
In the initial months of the COVID-19 pandemic, collegiate athletes reported mental
health concerns at rates 1.5 to 2.5 times higher than usual (National Collegiate Athletic
Association, 2020c). Division I athletes’ reported experiences included depression (26%
reporting clinical levels), anxiety, psychological distress, feeling overwhelmed, difficulty
sleeping, mental exhaustion, loneliness, hopelessness, and anger (National Collegiate Athletic
Association, 2020c; Petrie et al., 2020). Despite these challenges, there was a nine percent
reduction in the number of college athletes who continued to receive mental health counseling
after the onset of the pandemic, per athlete reports (Petrie et al., 2020). Similar challenges
appeared to plague athletes who had been preparing for the 2020 Olympics in Tokyo, as the
pandemic-related changes left them “puzzled” and stressed (Schinke et al., 2020). The Olympic
COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 7
hopefuls described experiencing decreased sleep and appetite, increased rumination and
loneliness, and fear that they might lose the opportunity to compete in the Olympics altogether.
As mass quarantine continued and sports remained shut down, athletes all over the world
had a range of experiences regarding their mental health and well-being. Some studies
demonstrated increases in depression, anxiety, and insomnia among athlete populations because
of the pandemic and related concerns (e.g., worry about finances; Pensgaard et al., 2021; Roberts
& Lane, 2021). Other studies did not support this, as athletes showed “relatively low,” nonpathological levels of stress, anxiety, and depressive symptoms—a pattern possibly attributable
to elite athletes’ experiences coping with competition-related anxiety and developing cognitive
coping resources as a result (Clemente-Suarez et al., 2020; Leguizamo et al., 2020). When asked
directly, some student-athletes expressed that their experiences as athletes had prepared them to
manage their time, maintain motivation, and remain disciplined during the pandemic. Others felt
that there was no advantage, as being an athlete did not make them different from other people
and in some ways being an athlete may have been more difficult because of the demands that
come with this role (Izzicupo et al., 2021).
Finally, athletes’ mental health and well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic differed
based on personal characteristics. For instance, the pandemic appeared to have a greater
negative impact on female athletes, as they reportedly experienced more stress and anxiety, fear
of the virus, and psychological decline, along with lower levels of perceived control in their lives
compared to male athletes (Bowes et al., 2020; di Fronso et al., 2020; Håkansson et al., 2020;
Kaçoğlu et al., 2021; Pons et al., 2020; Ruffault et al., 2020). Further, more seasoned athletes
and those competing at higher levels were less impacted than those with less experience or
competing at lower levels (Pensgaard et al., 2021; González-Hernández et al., 2021; Kaçoğlu et
COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 8
al., 2021). This may be due to high-level athletes having access to more resources and support
from coaches and mental health practitioners (Pensgaard et al., 2021), and increased sport
experience may have helped athletes build the capacity to cope with challenges. Although
athletes competing at higher levels expressed less general distress during the pandemic, they
reportedly experienced more anxiety about returning to sport (Ruffault et al., 2020). Team sport
athletes generally reported less distress during the pandemic compared to individual sport
athletes, possibly as a result of having a built-in support system, more contact with team
members, and less pressure to perform well immediately upon return to sport as the
responsibility to perform is distributed across team members (di Cagno et al., 2020; Uroh &
Adewumni, 2021). Finally, the extent to which individuals identified as athletes appeared to
play a role in mental health and well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic, although findings
were mixed. In one study, a stronger athletic identity was associated with greater tendencies to
ruminate and catastrophize during the pandemic (Costa et al., 2020). A strong athletic identity
may lead to greater concerns about sport training, and discomfort when away from one’s sport
for a prolonged period. However, in another study athletic identity was associated with less
psychological distress during the pandemic (Costa et al., 2020; Uroh & Adewunmi, 2021); the
authors explained that intentionally increasing one’s athletic identity may serve as a protective
factor against distress.
Current Study
The major logistical changes to college sports over the course of the COVID-19
pandemic have altered collegiate athletes’ lives in various ways. This population is unique as
they are young adults who typically operate in highly structured, physically and psychologically
demanding, competitive environments. The experience of the COVID-19 pandemic—
COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 9
particularly during mass quarantine—forced many collegiate athletes into “relatively aimless”
lifestyles that in many cases were vastly different than what they were used to. To understand
the significance and impact of the systemic changes to college sports, it is valuable to gain a
nuanced understanding of collegiate athletes’ lived experiences and reflections of the pandemic
relative to their athletic careers. The purpose of this study was to develop an understanding of
Division I collegiate athletes experiences of the pause in college sports that resulted from the
COVID-19 pandemic.
Methods
The primary researcher’s philosophical perspective heavily informed the hermeneutic
phenomenological approach taken to address the research questions in this study. Ontologically,
the researcher maintains the idealist perspective that while there are experiences which humans
seemingly share with one another, each person has different perceptions and meanings associated
with each phenomenon (Sale et al., 2002). Epistemologically, the researcher believes that the
truth can only be known through each individual’s personal interpretations and those of others
(Guba & Lincoln, 1994). Based on these philosophical underpinnings, a hermeneutic
phenomenological approach was taken to effectively explore individuals’ lived experiences
through their own interpretations while also acknowledging the role of the researcher’s
perspective and existing biases (Heidegger, 1927). Specifically, the researcher acknowledges her
experience as a former Division I collegiate athlete and strength and conditioning graduate
assistant, which provided valuable understanding of Division I athletics while also contributing
to existing biases. The researcher also acknowledges her personal experiences during the
COVID-19 pandemic.
Participants
COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 10
Participants in this study were 11 Division I collegiate student-athletes from various
institutions and athletic conferences across the United States. The researcher employed a
demographic variation approach (Sandelowski, 1995) to include a near-equal number of male
and female athletes, with varied racial backgrounds and class standings. Athletes were also
recruited from a range of sports to capture experiences that varied based on sport culture and the
likelihood that an athlete would be able to continue their career in their respective sport at a
professional level. To be eligible to participate in the current study, the athletes had to (a) be at
least eighteen years old, (b) be part of a team whose athletic season had been impacted by the
COVID-19 pandemic (winter and spring sports during the 2019-2020 season, fall sports during
the 2020-2021 season), and (c) have remaining athletic eligibility and expect to return to play for
their current team in the following season. Participant demographics can be found in Table 1.
Table 1
Participant Demographics
Participant
(Pseudonym)
Gender Sport Age Race Academic standing
(2020-2021)
Bryce Male Soccer 22 White Senior
Daphne Female Soccer 20 Asian Junior
Luka Male Soccer 22 White Senior
Toby Male Cross Country 24 Hispanic Master’s
Devon Male Football 21 Black Junior
Paris Female Track 22 Black Master’s
Megan Female Volleyball 21 White Master’s
Taylor Female Softball 20 White Junior
Sophia Female Softball 19 White Freshman
Emma Female Soccer 22 White Senior
Keoni Male Baseball 20 Hispanic Junior
Procedures
Athletes were recruited using both purposive and snowball sampling, and data was
collected through individual interviews. By conducting semi-structured interviews, the
COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 11
researcher aimed to understand each participant’s experience of the pause in college sports due to
the pandemic, and the impact on their lives that they experienced as a result. A participantdriven interview dynamic was established by asking the broad, open-ended question, “Can you
talk about how the COVID-19 pandemic has affected your life relative to your sports
participation?” (Englander, 2012; Vandermause & Fleming, 2011). Follow up questions were
then asked based on the interviewees’ particular responses. Interviews took place virtually via
Zoom to securely record and store the video meetings (Zoom Video Communications Inc.,
2020). Prior to starting the interview, each participant was reminded that the interview would be
recorded, and that only the primary researcher and possibly a transcriber would have access to
the audio.
Trustworthy phenomenological research is dependent on sampling adequacy, or the
researcher’s assessment of the extent to which all evident and knowable experiences of the
phenomenon being studied have been accounted for (Bowen, 2008; Morse et al., 2002; van
Manen et al., 2016). The researcher assessed that after conducting 11 interviews, common
experiences had been clearly established as re-occurring patterns were emerging from the
athletes’ responses. While variations in experiences/patterns continually emerged as a result of
individual and situational differences, general patterns appeared to the extent that the researcher
determined Division I collegiate athletes’ experiences during COVID-19 had been accounted for.
Therefore, the researcher terminated data collection after conducting 11 interviews.
Data Analysis
Interviews were analyzed by a research team of three coders with backgrounds in sport,
exercise, and performance psychology. The coders conducted a thematic analysis, following
Braun and Clarke’s (2006) 14-step model. The coders first read the entire data set independently
COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 12
to familiarize themselves with the data before independently coding the interviews. A datadriven approach was taken during the coding process to allow codes to emerge naturally from the
interviews, without conscious influence from existing theories, models, or research. Upon
establishing a list of agreed-upon codes, the coders collapsed them into potential themes—first
independently, and then through collaborative discussion. They then engaged in multiple rounds
of individual analysis and collaborative meetings to define and refine the primary themes,
identify subthemes, and develop a thematic map to serve as a visual representation of the
findings. Through this iterative process, the coders identified three primary themes that captured
athletes’ experiences of the COVID-19 pandemic, and the impact that the pandemic had on their
lives relative to their athletic endeavors.
Trustworthiness
Various steps were taken throughout the data collection and analysis process to ensure
trustworthiness of the data (Elo et al., 2014). First, the establishment of a research team allowed
for multiple perspectives and unique interpretations of the data. Second, the research team
carefully followed Braun and Clarke’s well-cited outline of thematic analysis (2006) to ensure a
thorough and credible analysis of the data. Third, each member of the research team engaged in
reflexive journaling throughout the analysis process to document decisions, rationales, and their
own reflections to maintain an audit trail (Nowell et al., 2017). Fourth, direct quotes from
participants have been included in the results to ensure that the information is being presented
accurately (Wadey et al., 2012). Finally, participants in the current study were each sent a copy
of their respective interview transcripts to review and provide any feedback or changes if they
desired (none had feedback or requested changes). Upon completion of the study, participants
COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 13
also received a copy of the aggregated results to review, though none responded with further
feedback.
Results
The 11 participating Division I athletes were interviewed between October 20 and
December 5, 2020. During this time, the athletes had all resumed training for their sports with
their respective teams and schools, but with many COVID-19 safety measures in place. Some
athletes were facing unknowns about their impending sport schedules, sometimes unsure if the
upcoming season was going to be cancelled or not. Other athletes had recently (at the time of the
interview) completed seasons that had been modified due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The
athletes’ responses provided a comprehensive story of what their lives had been like from the
beginning of the pandemic until the time of their respective interviews. Based on their accounts,
three primary themes capture how the COVID-19 pandemic affected their lives relative to their
sport participation: (a) Typical Structure: Gone, (b) Athletic Identity: Decentralized, and (c) New
Choices: More Decisions. A visual representation of themes and subthemes can be found in
Figure 1.
Typical Structure: Gone
Division I collegiate athletes typically operate within a very structured system. Each
sport has a clearly defined primary season, competitions are scheduled well in advance, and the
competition schedule is published in advance of the season starting. Day-to-day, Division I
athletes tend to have heavily scheduled lives during the school year that create a lot of structure,
including scheduled practices, strength and conditioning sessions, time in the training room for
recovery and treatment, tutoring and/or study hall, team meetings, and community events.
However, the structure that athletes become accustomed to was absent during the pandemic. The
COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 14
loss of structure has been broken into four subthemes: (a) competition schedules unknown, and
timelines for return became moving targets, (b) athletes removed from typical sport
environments during mass quarantine, (c) COVID-19 safety measures implemented upon return
to sport, and (d) team dynamics altered.
Figure 1
Thematic Map of Athletes’ Experiences During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Competition Schedules Unknown, and Timelines for Return Became Moving Targets
A major change in the typical structure of athletes’ lives was the uncertainty surrounding
future competition schedules and seasons. As the pandemic continued, sport seasons were not
only cancelled but postponed with no clear or definitive dates for return. Many times, athletes
were given a return date only to have that date postponed further as the pandemic continued:
Typical Structure: Gone.
Schedules and timelines for return
became moving targets.
Removed from typical sport
environment during quarantine.
COVID-19 safety measures
implemented upon return to sport.
Team dynamics altered.
New Choices: More
Decisions.
Managing training during
quarantine.
Decisions about future due to
additional year of eligibility.
Athletic Identity:
Decentralized.
More time to focus on
responsibilities and life
outside of sport.
Opportunity to explore new
activities and find new
purpose.
COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 15
…it just kinda kept being like, one week, they were like, “Yeah, we’re gonna start next
week,” and then we would get to like the night before and they’re like, “Nope, gotta wait
another week.” (Emma, soccer)
The lack of a definitive return date made it difficult for the athletes to plan and prepare for their
return to campus and sport training:
It was a little odd because we didn’t really know when we were gonna be allowed back,
like it was constantly changing like, “Okay, we wanna try to get you back June 1st.” And
then it was like, “We can’t get you back June 1st, we’re gonna try June 8th.” And then it
kinda just kept getting pushed back and…I’m very organized and I like to have a plan
and stuff, and so it was like a little hard for me to be like, “Okay, what are we doing? I
kinda wanna know what's going on.” (Megan, volleyball)
All the athletes returned to training on campus with their teams by the end of summer 2020.
However, the start dates for fall sport seasons were often moving targets, and some fall sport
athletes were training without any confirmation that there would be a season at all:
…at some point it looked like there’s no chance for playing, then at some point it looked
like we’re definitely gonna play again, we’re all getting ready, and then it got closed
again because the cases would rise again. So I think it was just an up and down, up and
down. (Luka, soccer)
Spring sport athletes were months away from their typical season start dates, but were still
plagued with the unknown of whether there would be a season or not:
We don’t know if we’re gonna like have a first game of the season or what we’re gonna
do, but yeah, if the spring goes as planned, I guess they’ll roll our schedule out here
pretty quick, but everything is super undetermined… (Sophia, softball)
COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 16
As a result, some spring sport athletes seemed to have less confidence in the value of their offseason training, questioning whether there would be a season to justify their training:
Now today, we’re at this kind of awkward place of, “Are we even practicing for a reason?
Are we gonna have a season? Do we even have track meets lined up?” (Paris, track)
Athletes Removed from Typical Sport Environments During Mass Quarantine
Collegiate athletes were not in their typical training environments for many months
during mass quarantine. Many moved away from campus to live with family during this time,
while others remained in their housing near school but nevertheless remained isolated without inperson access to facilities, coaches, teammates, and other support staff. Many of the athletes
noted that they were less motivated to train on their own, away from their teammates, coaches,
and typical competitive environments:
Yeah, I mean, [home is] definitely a different environment, I think, compared to, if we
were to be able to be as a team and train together, like I’m working that much harder, I’m
motivated more. Like, for me and like a lot of people in athletics…[we] have such a
competitive mindset, and it’s really different to be competitive with yourself, compared
to competitive to someone else. (Emma, soccer)
However, some athletes had access to training equipment (e.g., batting cage, weights) and/or
other people to train with from the very start of mass quarantine, even when facilities were
closed. For these athletes, removal from their typical environments and structured schedules
seemed to facilitate training:
…but not like playing, like softball at that time and not going to school, like I was able
to… really focus on like my game. Like I would go and throw every day and like just be
really focused on workouts, so like, I like that aspect that I was like kind of being
COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 17
independent, like not having to go to school and not having that like strict schedule.
(Sophia, softball)
COVID-19 Safety Measures Implemented Upon Return to Sport
As collegiate athletes returned to campuses and resumed sport training, their schools and
athletic departments had implemented safety protocols to reduce the spread of the COVID-19
virus. Specific safety protocols seemed to vary between athletic departments and depended
somewhat on the nature of the sport (e.g., outdoor versus indoor, close contact versus spread
out). Safety measures were put in place that became part of the athletes’ regular procedures,
interfering with their typical structure and routine:
Everyday we’d show up to the front of like, our athletic building. They’d take our
temperature, give us a wristband if you passed your temperature [check]. Every morning,
30 minutes prior to showing up to any facility, we had to fill out a thing called a daily
wellness, uh quiz. (Keoni, baseball)
Although teams sometimes shortened their practices as part of their response to COVID-19, the
athletes also had to take more time as they intentionally adhered to the COVID-19 safety
requirements. One athlete highlighted the additional planning and preparation that it required to
go to the training room for treatment:
We always had to do extra sign-up sheets, or like text before if we wanted to get
treatments…like they had to be prepared, and like if…they don’t know ahead of
time…then like you’re not gonna get the treatment that you need, so like...we have to be
like super on top of like our schedules and stuff. (Sophia, softball)
COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 18
Many of the athletes were required to quarantine upon return to campus and before they could
return to team practice, and some had to quarantine due to contact tracing and the spread of
COVID-19 among groups of athletes:
Then in July, we ended up having to go into a third week of quarantine because the
athletic department as a whole... I’m not gonna name names of teams, but one team was
already practicing, had major issues, and so we got completely shut down, so we had to
go into a third week of quarantine… (Megan, volleyball)
Further, athletes had grown accustomed to practicing as a team or training in particular organized
groups prior to the pandemic. This structure changed upon their return to training, as many
teams were initially separated into smaller training groups to prevent potential team-wide
outbreaks of the COVID-19 virus. Over time—usually the course of a few weeks—practices and
training sessions shifted toward what was considered “normal,” as teams progressively practiced
in bigger groups or as a whole once again:
Their plan at first was to keep each group, you know, with each other, and then you know
after you get tested and everybody’s positive, “Okay, now we know that nobody in each
group had one single person that was infected.” So now we can come [together]
collectively, but for the meantime, our meetings were just running backs, just
quarterbacks, just you know, not collectively offense… We…transitioned into a team
play, and then we [transitioned] into contact as we continued to get tested and found
negative results. (Devon, football)
Beyond initially practicing in small groups, additional safety protocols were implemented during
practices and strength and conditioning sessions that went against the typical structure athletes
were used to in their training environments. In some cases, this even altered the way they
COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 19
experienced their sport. Athletes were required to wear masks at certain times during training
(this varied between teams and sometimes between positions), physically distance from others,
and make adjustments to ensure equipment was sanitary or sanitized:
…at first, we couldn’t touch the baseball with our hands. So we’d catch it with our
glove, run to the bucket, drop the ball, like, with your glove, and if you did touch it, our
trainers, like uh, player trainers. They would have to like sanitize the ball and like wipe it
down with a towel and like…There [were] a lot of rules. (Keoni, baseball)
Finally, some of the athletes expressed negative perceptions of the impact that COVID-19 safety
measures had on the vibe during training sessions. One athlete discussed the impact of his team
being divided into smaller groups:
For us to not necessarily see our complete team on the field, for us to not see our
complete team working out, it’s a total change of scenery and it kinda like, lowers the
tension as far as the excitement, as far as the intensity when it comes to working out,
because you don’t get to see, you know, the big groups, everybody pumped and
everything. So everything…has been like watered down because of it. (Devon, football)
Team Dynamics Altered
Athletes experienced changes in their interactions with teammates both due to physical
separation during mass quarantine, and because of the altered circumstances they experienced
upon return to training. During mass quarantine, the athletes’ interactions with teammates and
coaches took place through various mediums (e.g., text messaging, phone calls, virtually playing
video games, Zoom meetings, in-person) and varied in frequency. Interactions were formal (e.g.,
team meetings) or informal (e.g., teammates texting as friends). Once the typical structure was
COLLEGE ATHLETES’ EXPERIENCES OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC 20
removed, team dynamics that existed prior to the pandemic—relationships between teammates,
athletes’ perspectives of coaches—appeared to be magnified during the mass quarantine:
The team, we talked, like the players, ‘cause we all play video games together. We all
talk on the phone together. Play games on our phone together, like we all are good
friends. (Keoni, baseball)
The following athlete expressed that she “thought about transferring” at many points during the
pandemic “because of the lack of [her] coaches and [her] team doing anything…as a team”:
In the beginning, our coaches would call. Like, one of our coaches would call every
couple weeks just to check in, see how our families were doing, how we’re doing…I
think that was maybe, they only did it for maybe a month, month and a half. They tried.
They’re not the best but, they tried. Our team definitely lacks in that aspect of coachplayer relationship… (Daphne, softball)
Once athletes returned to in-person training, athletic departments and coaching staff largely
expected them to remain in a social “bubble” that only consisted of their teammates to prevent a
COVID-19 infection from an outside source. Many suggested that this limitation led them to
spend more time with their teammates than usual, which created a unique bonding experience:
So almost feels like we’re more, more together now, like in the day, then we would be
normally in a fall season be