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West Virginia University
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Judkins, Jaxson S., "Examining the Online Marketing of Sport Psychology Services by Certified Mental
Performance Consultants: A Rhetorical Analysis" (2024). Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem
Reports. 12648.
https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd/12648
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Examining the Online Marketing of Sport Psychology Services by Certified Mental
Performance Consultants: A Rhetorical Analysis
Jaxson S. Judkins, M.A.
Dissertation submitted
to the College of Applied Human Sciences
at West Virginia University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in
Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology
Sam Zizzi, Ed.D., Chair
Lisa Platt, Ph.D.
D. Jake Follmer, Ph.D.
Adam Zundell, M.S.
School of Sport Sciences
Morgantown, West Virginia
2024
Keywords: persuasion, rhetoric, sport psychology services, social media, marketing
Copyright 2024 Jaxson S. Judkins
Abstract
Examining the Online Marketing of Sport Psychology Services by Certified Mental Performance
Consultants: A Rhetorical Analysis
Jaxson Judkins, M.A.
In recent years, Certified Mental Performance Consultants (CMPCs) have increased their
footprint in social media to connect with those that seek sport psychology services (Cotterill &
Symes, 2014). The aim of this study was to identify what social media platforms are most used
among CMPCs and what persuasive elements are used to draw in potential clients. All active
CMPCs from 1992 to 2023 were examined to determine the most popular social media platforms
used, followed by an analysis of 219 CMPCs based on their ownership of a LinkedIn account
and professional website. Results indicated that LinkedIn and the consultants’ custom
professional website were the most popular online platforms used. The most common rhetorical
strategies used included authority, ethos, and pathos to market the benefits of their consulting
services to the public. Lastly, master’s level CMPCs used reciprocity and social proof in greater
volume, whereas doctoral level CMPCs leaned more on authority to establish persuasiveness.
Future research could explore short video content produced by CMPCs on social media
platforms to gain new insights into consumer engagement with sport psychology services.
iii
Acknowledgements
“A tame horse never made a skilled rider” became my mantra during this Ph.D. journey, drawing
upon my childhood riding horses and the reality that every fall is another opportunity to dust
myself off and become more refined. I knew that I would get “bucked off” with no warning
along the Ph.D. path, but I knew I could accomplish this endeavor if given the chance. What I
couldn’t predict was the amount of support I received from those around me; their
encouragement to get back in the saddle and ride on. Reflecting on this journey, I am filled with
a deep sense of gratitude for those that stood by me during this wild ride and this message is to
them:
To Dr. Zizzi, no doubt, I got “lost in literature forest” or better said, “bathed” in it for far too
long trying to create the perfect study, but you were always there to help me get out of my own
way. You are my research mountain “sherpa”, the one that guided, encouraged, and at times,
carried me through the rugged research terrain to reach the summit. Your charisma and wisdom
are unmatched and with alternative rock music in the background, I can still hear your voice
saying, “If you get lost in literature forest and no one hears your scream, then you’re in the right
place.” My experience at WVU has been shaped by your example and approach to life. Your
willingness to take me in as one of your adopted students these last two years has meant so much
to me. You showed me what I am capable of and pushed me beyond my limits. I greatly
appreciate your patience through thick and thin. Because of your mentorship, you gave me the
“climbing anchors” needed to reach the top. I am indebted to you in more ways than you know.
Thank you for believing in me.
To my committee, I want to send my most sincere gratitude to Dr. Platt, Dr. Follmer, and Mr.
Zundell who guided me through my dissertation. I leaned on you for guidance and direction at
various points in the project. Your time, expertise, detailed feedback, and genuine care for my
success amplified my project to a level I could not have reached on my own. Thank you for your
unparalleled direction to reach this level of my academic career.
To Dr. Barnicle, from my core, I want to say thank you for believing in me as your doctoral
student. I would not be in this position today if it wasn’t for you and I know you were always in
my corner. Certainly being admitted into this PhD program took a few attempts, but you gave me
the opportunity to pursue my Ph.D. as your graduate student in the program, something that was
absolutely outside of my control. I still remember receiving a phone call from you as I was
walking through the lobby of the University of Utah hospital, offering me a place to work with
you at West Virginia University. It was a memorable moment for me. I have learned many things
from you, specifically the power of networking, building relationships, and the value of reversed
planning to establish realistic goals with the end in mind. But most of all, your openness as a
mentor has always helped me see the bigger picture and truly hunt for the good stuff. Thank you
for believing in me and giving me the opportunity to make this dream become a reality. Once
you opened the door, it was up to me to make it happen.
To Dr. Watson, “The Giant” and legend of WVU SEP. As if by fate, I was very lucky to have
you as my second mentor at WVU. I thought that the ship had sailed, but miraculously, I was
able to receive your mentorship within a short period of time. You encouraged me to become a
more effective researcher and consultant, assessing my perceptions and goals as a practitioner.
You trusted in my abilities to succeed and gave me vital counsel that I needed at just the right
iv
time. You surgically analyzed my qualifying project redundancy, putting it in the place where it
needed to be. I am very grateful for your mentorship and thoughtful advice throughout my time
at WVU. Thank you for everything you helped me achieve.
To Dr. Houlihan, Dr. Kampoff, and Dr. McAlarnen, you all showed me how to lean into research
and acclimatize to the research grind. I can recall your advice that a masters thesis is similar to a
“campfire” whereas the dissertation would be a “firestorm”. Fortunately, my masters thesis
resembled more of a firestorm and prepared me for what was to come. At every turn, each of you
played a critical role in my development as a researcher and consultant, providing me with many
opportunities to grow. My heartfelt gratitude extends to you for your mentorship and
instrumental influence in my work and personal growth.
To my research team, Natalie, Alex W., Alex M., Adonté, Peyton, and Caitlin, I want to
genuinely thank you for your dedication, effort, and willingness to work in the research trenches
with me. I relied on each one of you on many occasions without much in return. You invested
your time and abilities behind the scenes to bring this project into fruition, and each of you
responded with great enthusiasm and insight when it was needed. I am forever grateful for your
dedication to make this dissertation happen.
To my SEP classmates, I am immensely grateful to each of you. Your support throughout this
project kept me level-headed and grounded by reading drafts, reviewing slides, and listening to
me conceptualize when I needed it the most. Specifically, my basecamp desk neighbors Lindsey
and Hannah, thank you for your positivity and friendship.
To my cohort, Kim, Diane, Suzanne, and Chip: My experience at WVU would not have been the
same without you. I am grateful for your genuine friendship and memories that we built together
these last few years. Our tight knit group and devotion to one another has been an enormous
blessing, one that I know will continue to grow beyond WVU. You all mean so much to me, and
it is an honor to be a part of the 2020 team.
To my program mentor, Kevin, you sir have been my go-to “mountaineer guide” from my first
interview week in 2019 crashing at your place to my dissertation completion. I am exceptionally
grateful for your sincere care for me and my family from day one, making our years at WVU
unforgettable.
To Mom and Dad, your lifelong lessons continue to guide me wherever I go, in each endeavor I
face. Your influence on me is immeasurable and I am grateful to be your son. You have taught
me how to observe and serve (“seeing the need”), show kindness to all, uphold my integrity
wherever I find myself, follow through with commitments, and embrace a deep love of work.
With many more essential skills needed to lead a fulfilling life, you’ve equipped me with the
ones required to enjoy and conquer challenges along the way. I love you both!
To my siblings and in-laws: Over the last decade, you have all supported our academic journey
across the country in different ways and provided guidance throughout. I have benefited greatly
from your advice and wisdom (drawn from many movie quotes) in seeing what lies ahead. I am
very blessed to have each one of you and your constant support, knowing that I can always turn
to you for help. Everything is mucho nice!
v
To my boys, Jagger and Zane, you bring insurmountable joy and energy to my life. Being a
father to you is unquestionably the greatest blessing I have and the most important role I have on
this earth. Each day, you were my alarm clock, my morning sendoffs, my escape from the
academic marathon, and my greeting party when I walked through the front door. Good days or
bad, you both brought me a significant amount of joy that pushed me through the hardest of
nights. Many ideas flowed as I’d rock you to sleep, and the dedication to see this project through
came from your energy and smiling faces.
To Lacey my words here cannot fully describe how much you mean to me and the love I have
for you. You are my anchor, my harbor from the storm, my oasis amid the many moments of
struggle in receiving this foundational accomplishment. Your unwavering support, love, and
encouragement during all the breakthroughs and setbacks were significant sources of strength for
me and I couldn’t have done any of this without you by my side. No doubt, balancing the
demands of a decade-long grad school journey with the joys and challenges of raising our kids
has been no small feat, yet we’ve grown together in more ways than I thought possible. Many
early mornings, late nights, and sacrifices were given to see this through. You gave me the time
and inspiration needed to achieve this goal. I am forever grateful to you and what we did
together. I see this achievement is as much yours as it is mine. I love you!
Above all, I am thankful for my Heavenly Father and Jesus Christ, who shaped me into the man I
am today. They continue to provide me with significant comfort and peace in everything I do.
With all of my inadequacies and limitations, I undoubtedly know that God has lifted me up in
every moment under His watchful care. He knew where I needed to be and recognized that the
many setbacks and disappointments leading up to this point provided me with a richer, more
fulfilling experience in West Virginia. He renews my soul day-in and day-out and influences my
life to transcend beyond my own capabilities. With Him guiding me, I am ready for the journey
forward, confident that I will continue to learn and grow, just as a skilled rider learns to navigate
new terrains. More is to come, and with each new challenge, I trust that He will be with me,
securing my hands to the reins and guiding my steps no matter what unforeseeable horizon lies
ahead.
“I do not boast in my own strength, nor in my own wisdom; but behold, my joy is full, yea, my
heart is brim with joy, and I will rejoice in my God. Yea, I know that I am nothing; as to my
strength I am weak; therefore I will not boast of myself, but I will boast of my God, for in his
strength I can do all things.” – Alma 26:11-12
vi
Table of Contents
Examining the Online Marketing of Sport Psychology Services by Certified Mental Performance
Consultants: A Rhetorical Analysis.................................................................................................................1
Perceptions of Sport Psychology Services................................................................................................2
Online Marketing of Sport Psychology Services......................................................................................4
Persuasion and Online Marketing .............................................................................................................6
Significance...............................................................................................................................................8
Method ................................................................................................................................................................9
Research Design........................................................................................................................................9
Participants................................................................................................................................................9
Procedures............................................................................................................................................... 10
Coding and Agreement Procedure .......................................................................................................... 14
Data Analysis.......................................................................................................................................... 15
Results ...............................................................................................................................................................16
Demographics ......................................................................................................................................... 16
Online Platform Use................................................................................................................................ 17
Persuasive Elements................................................................................................................................ 17
Relationship Between Persuasive Elements and Demographic Factors ................................................. 18
Rhetorical Examples............................................................................................................................... 19
Discussion..........................................................................................................................................................22
Key Findings........................................................................................................................................... 23
Demographic Differences in CMPC Profiles of Persuasion ................................................................... 27
Limitations.............................................................................................................................................. 28
Future Directions .................................................................................................................................... 29
References.........................................................................................................................................................31
Appendix A.......................................................................................................................................................39
vii
Appendix B .......................................................................................................................................................41
Tables.................................................................................................................................................................42
Extended Review of the Literature.................................................................................................................50
Receptivity and Perceptions of Sport Psychology Services.................................................................... 51
Online Marketing .................................................................................................................................... 53
Obstacles to CMPC Marketing ............................................................................................................... 55
Persuasion ............................................................................................................................................... 58
The Elevator Pitch................................................................................................................................... 60
Conclusion .............................................................................................................................................. 68
Extended References .......................................................................................................................................70
CMPC PERSUASION 1
Examining the Online Marketing of Sport Psychology Services by Certified Mental
Performance Consultants: A Rhetorical Analysis
Athletes, coaches, and athletic trainers increasingly use technological tools to amplify
athlete effectiveness (Giblin et al., 2016) including virtual reality systems (Bird, 2020), wearable
devices (Seshadri et al., 2019), and biofeedback training models (Dupee et al., 2016). Alongside
these advancements in performance technology, the use of social media among athletes has also
increased dramatically. Researchers recently found that student athletes interacted with their
smartphones 4.5 hours per day (DesClouds et al., 2018). A follow-up study found that 81% of
athletes interviewed had their smartphone nearby continually, largely used for social media,
communication, and organization tasks (DesClouds et al., 2021). Not surprisingly, coaches and
other sport personnel including Certified Mental Performance Consultants (CMPC) have noticed
this rise in mobile device use among athletes in the locker room and off the playing field where
athletes use these devices to develop relationships, distract oneself from sport pressures, or
search for strategies to better prepare the athlete for performance. Encel et al. (2017) added to
this trend showing that 68% of 300 British athletes checked their social media accounts within
two hours of competition. Real life examples of athletes using social media to prepare for
performance include gold medalists Simone Biles, Michael Phelps, and NBA champion Kevin
Love. These athletes have used online platforms to openly talk about their psychological
struggles to normalize mental health and mental performance training. In addition, “Mind
Health” (NBA), “Player Health and Safety” (NFL), “Unmind” (MLB), and the “NHL Player
Assistance Program” were created to provide greater physical and psychological well-being to
athletes on devices (Jia et al., 2022). Sport psychology consultants (SPCs) have become aware of
these transformations within the sport environment on the digital front, particularly with the
CMPC PERSUASION 2
introduction and implication of smartphone apps. The literature notes that sport psychology apps
have been around for nearly 20 years (Cotterill & Symes, 2014; Prior, 2014), and the use of such
apps have been linked with improved mental skills. For instance, Stenzel and colleagues (2021)
found significant increases in concentration and self-efficacy, and more frequent recovery after
implementing a sport psychology app intervention to 44 athletes. SPCs have taken note of these
influences at play, particularly after the Covid-19 pandemic (Gretton et al., 2022) as it provided
opportunities for SPCs to reach more athletes virtually.
Social media has also facilitated the messaging and broadcasting of sport psychology
services to the consumer, making mental skills training more accessible. It is possible that the
expanded use of technology in sport psychology has reduced the stigma of mental health and
increased awareness of mental health and performance issues. It is not surprising that consulting
work—once a face-to-face endeavor—has now turned into a hybrid arrangement where inperson or remote consultations co-exist (Cotterill & Symes, 2014). Using these asynchronous
methods, SPCs are then tasked with communicating their messages to potential consumers
interested in sport psychology services and maintain the connection to benefit the athlete’s
overall play.
Perceptions of Sport Psychology Services
Research shows that most sport personnel (e.g., athletes, coaches, athletic directors,
athletic trainers, strength and conditioning coaches) have a positive outlook on sport psychology
(SP) services (Fortin-Guichard et al., 2018), particularly when services improve athlete
performance and when sport psychology consultants (SPCs) have strong interpersonal skills to
connect with others. One study showed that coaches were receptive to sport psychology
providers who developed trust in the consultant and believed the SPC was a beneficial asset to
CMPC PERSUASION 3
the team (Sheehy et al., 2019). This feeling of trust was corroborated by other studies showing
that trust is a strong element of persuasion within interpersonal relationships (Farhat et al., 2022;
Isai et al., 2020).
There are several SPC characteristics that influence perceptions and decision-making
when choosing a SPC. A recent systematic review by Woolway and Harwood (2020) analyzed
17 studies totaling 2962 participants to determine what SPC characteristics affected participant
perceptions and decision-making when choosing a SPC. They reported that athletes preferred
having SPCs with similar physical and demographic characteristics to them (e.g., age, gender,
physical appearance). In addition, interpersonal skills and accreditation were shown to be
important characteristics as well. Such findings resembled Lubker et al.’s (2008) study
supporting the idea that college athletes and SPCs preferred similar characteristics (e.g., sport
culture, sport knowledge, and athletic background) in consultation practices. Similarly,
researchers have sought to gain an understanding of what sport psychology consultants do to
attract and maintain clients from different sports, motives, and age groups. In one study,
researchers found that college athletes (n = 464) preferred consultants with an advanced degree
and refined interpersonal skills (Lubker et al., 2012). Moreover, being an expert, showing
genuine care for athletes, and having a strong knowledge base of the sport (e.g., terms, rules, and
jargon) increased a consultant’s perceived value in this study.
Another systematic review explored stakeholder perceptions of SPC characteristics by
analyzing 33 qualitative-focused articles (Tod et al., 2022). These researchers found that the
stakeholders wanted SPCs to build strong rapport, display “realness,” instill hope, set
expectations, promote client change, and be able to operate well in the client’s location. These
CMPC PERSUASION 4
findings provide insight into what athletes and coaches expect to see in an effective SPC and can
be used to further advance the field, particularly through technological means.
Online Marketing of Sport Psychology Services
In the last decade, social media platforms have emerged as the go-to places for online
engagement and communication, enabling individuals to interact easily with each other (Adeola
et al., 2020). Marketers and advertisers have taken advantage of this concept to promote their
products; however, little evidence shows how Certified Mental Performance Consultants (CMPC)
use online platforms to connect and promote their brand to meet the needs of the consumer.
Baxter and Smith (2017) explained this lack of marketing ability and recommended that CMPCs
implement two forms of marketing to promote their services by implementing active and passive
marketing. Active marketing focuses on establishing direct contact with potential clientele by
leveraging existing relationships, direct messaging, cold calling, and networking at specific
events. Passive marketing suggests building a reputation where potential clients contact the
consultant based on word of mouth, referrals, and advertisements. Within these strategies, Baxter
and Smith (2017) encouraged SPCs to create a professional website to educate individuals about
sport psychology and their expertise to establish authenticity with the potential buyer. The
Association for Applied Sport Psychology (AASP) has also provided an online platform for
potential clients to connect with consultants to connect with the general public in their local area,
but no data exists if the general public uses this website to find consultants (AASP, 2023a). Data
publicly available through the Association for Applied Sport Psychology, may fill this gap for
certified SPCs, but dissemination of this information is limited within the marketing framework.
Despite Baxter and Smith’s (2017) recommendations, Waite and colleagues (2021) affirmed the
need for better marketing strategies in their study when examining Olympic track and field
CMPC PERSUASION 5
athletes, many of whom were unfamiliar with sport psychology services and accessibility. These
authors acknowledged that an online consultant profile would help address the limited
knowledge consumers have about SP and establish a means of communication among the
athletes. Participants within this study suggested that embracing different online forms of
communication would be helpful for both parties (i.e., the consultant and the athlete), especially
if the website included the CMPCs bio, sport knowledge and background, and contact
information for obtaining services. Such an approach may clear an athlete’s unfamiliarity with
the services provided, as different platforms have different ways to deliver SPC messages.
Specifically, a study analyzing how the Twitter platform is used to communicate with
athletes and other practitioners found that the content of SPC tweets focused on media comments
(e.g., TV programs, news stories), advice and opinion, thoughts on events, self-promotion,
knowledge dissemination, and lifestyle (Cotterill, 2022). CMPCs identified that social media
presence had a positive impact on their work based on feedback from others. More than 60% of
the SPCs used a professional social media account to connect with athletes, yet surprisingly,
more than half (52%) did not engage in professional conversations on the platform. Some
professionals indicated they felt unskilled at using social media most effectively or feared of
putting themselves at risk in terms of privacy and not being aligned with ethical standards
provided by their governing body (e.g., AASP, BASES). Cotterill (2022) indicated that SPCs
expressed a desire to deliver information of value to alter thinking or behavior—a distinctive
characteristic of persuasion. Research has yet to explore how CMPCs are intentionally
attempting to educate or persuade potential clients in a particular way. Therefore, it would be
beneficial to examine the elements of persuasion and how these elements show up in SPC work.
CMPC PERSUASION 6
To better understand how SPCs use online marketing, theories of persuasion can be applied to
identify ways SP services are being delivered.
Other research analyzed the engagement of SPCs on social media to find it if was a
consultant to understand their perceptions of professional use of social media (Cotterill, 2022).
The findings showed that more than 60% of SPCs used a professional social media account to
connect with athletes, but 52% did not engage in professional conversations on the social media
platform. The professionals in the study cited several factors limiting their engagement,
including, a lack of social media competency, a fear of putting themselves at risk, and not being
aligned with ethical standards. Research has yet to explore how CMPCs intentionally attempt to
bridge the gap, and for that reason, it would be beneficial to examine the persuasive strategies
used in online platforms of credentialed sport psychology professionals.
Persuasion and Online Marketing
Persuasive communication is used online to influence their decision-making process
(Hong et al., 2020). Descriptive elements, shown through Rhetorical Theory, help explain the
content of what is taking place, why the persuader chooses specific language to convey a
message, and how such choices influence people. Three important markers of persuasion are
regularly explained in scientific literature to influence people, which include ethos, pathos, and
logos that appeal to persuading someone in a certain way (Leach, 2000). Ethos arguments appeal
to the credibility or trustworthiness of the source, whether the message is delivered from an
expert or reliable source. Pathos-based arguments use emotions to stir up a response and logos
appeals to logic, whether it is real or perceived, to convey a specific convincing message. One
sport psychology study addressed the principles above in outlining a persuasive elevator pitch by
describing a rhetorical scenario. In his example, Simpson (2016) explained that a SPC may write
CMPC PERSUASION 7
a persuasive message by integrating specific examples of ethos, pathos, and logos in brief
marketing form to give practitioners a starting point for marketing their services. However, this
publication was not data-based but rather a commentary offering a practical solution for young
professionals to improve their marketing.
Embedded underneath these three elements that promote good rhetorical positioning,
statis theory and the five canons of rhetoric (e.g., invention, arrangement, style, memory, and
delivery) are described as important drivers in viable persuasive communication (Leach, 2000).
Statis theory is a rhetorical method that helps decide what is the point of a persuasive message,
position, and effort to bring people with various opinions to a state of agreeableness or stability.
Statis theory uses reflective questions to gather the facts, definitions, quality
(good/bad/fair/unfair), and actions to examine what each person thinks about a specific issue
(Carter, 1988). The five canons of rhetoric begin with invention, which is the act of
brainstorming the message which leads to arrangement or the process of deciding how the
content will be organized. Next, style is used to demonstrate how the words will be incorporated
through tone, pace, and word choice. Style may also integrate metaphors and analogies to
amplify description. Memory indicates the process of committing a certain topic to memory to
draw upon when needed and delivery is the action of presenting a message to an audience.
Although research in sport psychology has not evaluated consultant marketing directly
through the lens of ethos, pathos, and logos, other fields have examined such rhetorical elements
in online settings. A recent study found that all three persuasive appeals were used in higher
education recruitment websites to influence students and parents (Oeppen Hill, 2020),
particularly ethos which was extensively used. Research in business has focused on the
importance of persuasion, much of it rooted in the work of Cialdini (2001) who identified six
CMPC PERSUASION 8
principles of persuasion that can be connected to online influences—reciprocity, consistency,
social proof, authority, liking, and scarcity. To provide context, reciprocity suggests that people
are instinctively drawn towards returning favors. An example would be a CMPC offering a 10%
discount or free handout when a consumer subscribes to their webpage. Next, people are
persuaded by consistency and stability. A CMPC following through with their commitments or
keeping promises are examples of consistency. Social proof means that people follow what
others do. For instance, persuasion comes from sharing testimonials from successful athletes,
coaches, or athletic directors elevated credibility. Exposure to positive testimonials can be
associated with greater intentions to use cognitive services (Apolinário-Hagen et al., 2021).
Persuasion is increased when paired with authority, specifically represented through an earned
credential or graduate degrees or licenses. Next, people are persuaded by things they like.
Therefore, liking sport psychology or having a shared interest by the way a CMPC applies
mental skills can fortify a consumer buy-in, especially if this service is perceived to be popular
or used by athletes they know. Lastly, people are persuaded to act when they believe resources
are scarce. In online marketing, CMPCs can use messages to project scarcity by using phrases
such as “limited time offers” or “two spots left on webinar” to urge consumers to make
decisions.
Significance
No research to date has explored how CMPCs use these persuasive messaging strategies
that stem from Leach (2000) and Cialdini (2001) in the online marketing space. Many CMPCs
use social media to educate consumers and to promote their services, but little research has
explored the quality of its content. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the persuasive
messaging of online content created by Certified Mental Performance Consultants to attract
CMPC PERSUASION 9
potential clientele. Social media platforms and professional websites provide a virtual tool for
consultants to showcase their work and promote the field of sport and performance psychology
to others.
• Research Question 1: What online platforms are most used by CMPCs to attract potential
consumers to sport psychology services?
• Research Question 2: What are the persuasive components that CMPCs use to promote
their messaging of sport psychology services?
Method
Research Design
This descriptive study used a Rhetorical Analysis to assess the persuasive features and
strategies of language used by CMPCs to market their sport psychology services. Researchers
implemented this approach to capture key persuasive concepts (i.e., ethos, pathos, and logos;
Leach, 2000) and Cialdini’s (2001) principles of persuasion (e.g., reciprocity, consistency, social
proof, authority, liking, and scarcity) to understand what persuasive components are found in
CMPC online messaging. These persuasive elements included reciprocity, consistency, social
proof, authority, liking, and scarcity.
Participants
Certified Mental Performance Consultants (CMPCs) were selected as the target
population of this study as this is the most widely recognized North American credential in the
sport psychology field. A list of CMPCs was drawn from the Association for Applied Sport
Psychology (AASP) organizational website representing 1004 active CMPCs (as of December
2023). Under the AASP standard, a CMPC must obtain formal education and at least 400 hours
of mentored experience, pass a standardized certification exam, and receive a formal board
CMPC PERSUASION 10
review (AASP, 2023a). Publicly available data on the AASP “Find a Consultant” interface was
used to compile the list of CMPCs in this study and record demographic and social media
information for each individual consultant.
Procedures
Since the data in this study was contained on public websites, no Institutional Review
Board (IRB) approval was necessary. Procedures were conducted in three phases to identify
eligibility, demographics, and persuasive strategies found.
Phase I – Identifying Eligible CMPCs & Available Social Media Profiles
In Phase I, the researchers collected all CMPC profiles (n = 1004), demographic
information, and social media accounts registered under each CMPC profile using the “Find a
CMPC” icon. These CMPC profiles were added to a cloud-based spreadsheet for easy access and
research team collaboration. The social media platforms recorded included the consultants: 1)
professional webpage; 2) LinkedIn; 3) Facebook; 4) Twitter/X; and 5) Instagram. Research team
members were selected and trained individually by the lead researcher on how to enter these
different platforms and record specific information within the CMPC profile such as: 1) year
certified (1992, 1993, ... 2023), 2) level of education (master’s degree/ doctoral degree), and 3)
licensed counselor or psychologist (Yes/No). This task helped determine the overall scope and
range of professionals in the CMPC population. Gender identity was not available in the AASP
CMPC profile, and therefore was not captured.
Phase II – Descriptive Analysis of CMPC Demographics & Profile Eligibility
The aim of Phase II was to discover what online platforms were most used by CMPCs to
attract potential consumers to sport psychology services and identify a subsample of CMPCs to
more closely examine their persuasive approach in marketing their services. This process
CMPC PERSUASION 11
revealed that the professional website (n = 388) and LinkedIn (n = 408) online platforms were
the two most used platforms among CMPCs. To narrow the complexity of examining all five
online platforms, the decision was made to explore consultants in possession of both a
professional website and LinkedIn account as the focus of the rhetorical analysis for Phase III.
This decision reduced the target CMPC population to 219 consultants.
Phase III – Rhetorical Analysis of Content
The goal of Phase III was to analyze the persuasive elements found in the selected
CMPCs (n = 219) professional websites and LinkedIn profiles. The written content found in the
professional websites were copied from each main webpage and service-related tabs (e.g.,
‘Home’, ‘Services’, ‘About’, ‘Our Team’, etc.) onto an Excel spreadsheet. These website tabs
were selected because they represented the CMPCs marketing structure and style in how they
described who they were, what they do, and how sport psychology services will benefit their
consumers. Other professional website text promoting CMPC services was also captured
including testimonials, customer reviews, subscriptions, discounts, and free material for purposes
of identifying persuasive material. Next, the LinkedIn content captured for each CMPC
contained information in the “About” section, number of “Active Followers”, the consultants
highest “Education” level (master’s/doctorate), and evidence of being a licensed/psychologist
found in the “Licenses & Certifications” section. The collection of written content from these
two platforms was performed solely by the lead researcher to minimize research team mistakes
and establish a standard database for the research team to code. Following the data extraction
from the professional websites and LinkedIn profiles, the lead researcher created a persuasion
codebook based on Leach’s (2000) Rhetorical Analysis principles and Cialdini’s (2001) Six
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Principles of Persuasion to train and guide the research team during the coding process (see
Appendix A).
Training the Research Team. Four college-level undergraduate research team members
were recruited and trained using the Persuasion Codebook (Appendix A) and the Persuasion
Codebook Checklist (Appendix B) during several in-person training sessions. Next, ten practice
CMPC profiles were purposefully selected and distributed among the team members (e.g., lead
researcher and four research team members) to code. The first two CMPCs were coded
collectively and then the remaining eight were coded individually to establish an operational
baseline for coding comprehension among team members. Specifically, the team navigated the
Excel spreadsheet for all written content previously extracted, then after, entered the two online
platforms to record subtle persuasive instances that would appear on the website such as
subscription buttons, testimonial paragraphs, free materials, and automatic pop-up discounts for
other persuasive elements. The lead researcher personally reviewed the initial ten CMPCs
collected by the research team. After this first step, the research team met to address data
troubleshooting, coding discrepancies, and volume of subtle persuasive element differences.
These meetings led to a revision of the Persuasion Codebook to help clarify definitions, locate
areas on the online platforms rich with content, and specify how multiple testimonials, customer
reviews, and subscription invitations would be counted. Clarifications were made regarding the
concepts of Ethos vs. Authority and Pathos vs. Liking as they were identified as problematic due
to the difficulty distinguishing these persuasive elements from one another. For instance, to
differentiate ethos and authority, team members categorized these elements based on the specific
time where the credibility of ethos represented a past form of credibility and authority
represented a present form of credibility. Specifically, ethos statements were identified as a past
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form of credibility as described through years of experience, former accolades (e.g., “national
champion”, “best-selling author”), high quality sport resume (e.g., “former Olympian, college
athlete, or coach”), or expertise in a specific research area. Authority statements were identified
as a present form of credibility based on the consultant’s current educational or employment
status (e.g., PhD, CMPC, CEO, licensed psychologist) or official title (e.g., “Dr. _____”,
“Director of Mental Performance”, “Associate professor”).
In the case of Pathos and Liking, pathos was identified as an emotional phrase used to
draw out emotion in people. Examples included statements such as “dream big” or “chase your
goals”. Liking was identified as a shared interest by the CMPC to seem more human (e.g., “My
first love was basketball”, “We’re in this together”, “I’m passionate about building a strong
mind”). It was noted that coders were not to decide whether the message appealed to their
personal emotions or shared interest but coded based on the CMPCs attempt to connect to a
potential client through their messaging. Critical dialogue during these meetings clarified such
persuasion elements and provided transparency throughout the data collection process.
After examining the initial ten CMPCs and adjusting the Persuasion Codebook, the lead
researcher selected one model CMPC profile with numerous persuasive strategies to teach and
demonstrate a good example of where to find persuasive elements, what to count and not to
count, and how messages can be interpreted in the foreseeable online platforms. Once
understood and thoroughly reviewed by the team, ten more profiles were selected and distributed
to evaluate the persuasive elements and the coders’ proficiency after revising the Persuasive
Codebook. Two profiles were coded as a group to identify any remaining coding discrepancies
and clarity of persuasive elements. Once the team agreed, each team member coded eight
CMPCs individually and areas of uncertainty were resolved by the research team until the coding
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results reached conformity. No revisions to the Persuasion Codebook were made after the 21st
CMPC was coded, representative of the ten percent CMPC sub-sample.
Lastly, the development of a rating system was established to maintain inter-rater
reliability for each persuasive element. The inter-rater reliability for the first 21 CMPCs followed
the agreement of four coders and finally the lead researcher as the final coder. For example, the
identification of a persuasive element in a CMPC profile was agreed upon when at least 3 of 4
coders would agree (75% agreement or better) determined it existed in a specific message
(Cohen, 1968; Hemmler et al., 2022). When coders reached a split consensus suggesting 2 of 4
coders agreed, the lead researcher would act as the final coder to override the presence (or
absence) of the persuasive element. This logic remained consistent throughout the training
coding process but was slightly modified when the research team was split into pairs to code the
remaining CMPCs.
Coding and Agreement Procedure
The lead researcher separated the four-person research team into two pairs to analyze the
remaining sub-sample of CMPCs (n = 198), thus creating a double coding process for each
profile. Each pair was assigned to code half of the remaining CMPC profiles (n = 99)
individually to cross check the presence of persuasive elements, reduce bias, minimize coding
fatigue, and ensure data entry was consistent. The lead researcher coded all 198 CMPCs to
establish a master code index used to override any disagreements when necessary. An
agreement/disagreement procedure was formed to report persuasive elements that appeared in
the CMPC profiles. Specifically in pairs, when the code of both team members aligned, shown
by 2 Yes’s or 2 No’s, the persuasive element was marked “present” or “not present” in the
spreadsheet. This uniformity between the two coders overruled the lead researcher’s master code
CMPC PERSUASION 15
even if the lead researcher identified the opposite code of the specified persuasive element.
When the team members split with 1 Yes and 1 No, the master code index of the lead researcher
consequently resolved the discrepancy in the direction of the lead researcher’s code.
The completion of coding 198 CMPCs by the research team yielded a total of 3564
decisions made per research team member (post-training) with 455 decisions being resolved by
the lead researcher. Calculated from the mean, an agreement rating was reached by the research
team at 87.24%, suggesting that 12.76% of the decisions were resolved by the lead researcher
based on definitions within the code book. Furthermore, the research team agreement on each
element indicated the following: ethos (78.5%), pathos (78.0%), logos (89.9%), reciprocity
(94.7%), commitment/consistency (86.9%), social proof (89.4%), authority (89.4%), liking
(84.8%), and scarcity (99%).
Data Analysis
To answer research question one, the descriptive statistics found in Phase I and Phase II
were calculated from the total population of CMPCs (n = 1004) to measure what percentage of
CMPCs used the specific five online social media platforms. At this stage, the researcher
calculated the mean and standard deviation in “years since certification” for the entire sample,
and the percentage of the overall sample with an MA//MSW/MEd/MS (“master’s”) vs.
PsyD/PhD/EdD (“doctoral”) degree. These demographic analyses were repeated in the subsample of CMPCs profiles in the rhetorical analysis.
To answer research question two, the researcher presented summary data on the
percentage of profiles that contained each of the nine persuasive elements, and the mean number
of instances of each element for the entire sub-sample. This portion of the analysis provided an
overview of the most common persuasive elements present in the written content provided by the
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CMPCs. Example quotes connected to each of the persuasive elements were highlighted showing
the most common ways that CMPCs attempted to persuade clients to use their services on these
two platforms. Within these examples, the research team made attempts to represent the diverse
ways that CMPCs used each persuasive element.
As this study was exploratory, the lead researcher examined the relationship with three
demographic variables collected (years since certification, level of education, and
licensed/psychologist status “yes/no”) and the presence or absence of each persuasive element.
To address the connection with years since certification, independent t-tests were conducted by
analyzing each persuasive component individually, with each persuasive element (as the
Independent Variable) and the mean years certified (as the Dependent Variable). Data was
checked for normality and equal variances prior to conducting the analyses, and Cohen’s d was
calculated to show the effect size for each mean comparison. To investigate if each persuasive
component was associated with level of education (Master’s vs. Doctoral) and Licensure
(Yes/No), a chi-square (two-way) test of independence was performed separately for each of the
nine persuasive components (present or absent).
Results
Demographics
Of the 219 CMPCs examined in Phase III, 89 (40.6%) were master’s level CMPCs and
130 (59.4%) were doctoral level CMPCs. Between 2019-2023, 69 (31.5%) were master’s level
CMPCs and 62 (28.3%) were doctoral level CMPCs. Fifty-five (25.1%) CMPCs were clinically
licensed or designated psychologists with 29 (52.7%) of 55 CMPCs obtaining CMPC status since
2019. The level of education combined with licensure indicated that 15 (16.9%) master’s level
CMPCs obtained clinical licensure and 40 (30.8%) doctoral level CMPCs had clinical licensure.
CMPC PERSUASION 17
What stands out in this finding shows that doctoral level CMPCs are nearly twice as likely to be
licensed compared to master’s level CMPCs with the presence of LinkedIn and a professional
website. Moving to years since certification, the Phase I data of 1004 CMPCs demonstrated that
the acquisition of the CMPC credential had increased within the last decade (M = 4.63, SD =
5.84) with 667 (66.4%) new CMPCs from 2019 to 2023. Based on the AASP CMPC country of
origin, 846 (84.3%) were listed from the United States, 103 (10.3%) from Canada, and 55 (5.5%)
from other countries.
Online Platform Use
Approximately 2/3 (64.2%) of all active CMPCs had at least one form of social media
platform connected to their profile, with LinkedIn (40.6%) and professional website (38.6%) as
the most common forms of marketing of services. Instagram (13.4%) and Facebook (11%)
covered the least amount of use in terms of sport psychology online marketing whereas Twitter
(X) accounted for 205 (20.4%) CMPCs. Within the last five years of the total CMPCs being
certified, 270 (26.8%) had LinkedIn, 223 (22.2%) had a professional website, 97 (9.6%) had
Twitter (X), 97 (9.6%) had Instagram, and 60 (5.9%) had Facebook. On average, the number of
LinkedIn followers of the overall sample was 440 followers per CMPC and the subsample was
1319 followers per CMPC.
Persuasive Elements
Overall, the study generated several findings that indicated CMPCs attempting to be
persuasive in their online written content, intentionally or not. First, the CMPCs appeal to
credibility and expertise was identified as the most common form of persuasion with ethos
appearing in 82.6% of the profiles (M = 0.83, SD = .379) and authority appearing in 83.6% of the
profiles (M = 0.84, SD = .371). Authority was often represented by the CMPC including their
CMPC PERSUASION 18
credentials (e.g., PhD, CMPC, PsyD, etc.) and current job status, whereas ethos represented
years of experience in the field and former areas of credibility. Second, pathos was represented
in 72.1% of the profiles (M = 0.72, SD = .449), marking emotional appeal as a common
persuasive element used, with liking shown to be present in 37% of the profiles (M = 0.37, SD =
0.483). Third, social proof was associated with client recommendations and past service
experiences, such as testimonials and customer reviews. Social proof appeared in 30.1% of the
profiles (M = 0.30, SD = .459). Fourth, commitment/consistency was found within 29.7% of
profiles (M = 0.30, SD = .457) with persuasive elements created to keep potential consumers
engaged on their professional website or LinkedIn. Fifth, reciprocity, or the exchange of CMPC
resources for consumer engagement (e.g., discounts, deals, free materials), appeared in 26% (M
= 0.26, SD = .439) of profiles. Consultants offering a free initial consultation was the most
common strategy observed. Logos and scarcity were the least used persuasive elements with
8.7% (M = 0.87, SD = .282) and 0% respectively. Table 1 provides the results obtained from the
analysis of persuasive elements.
Relationship Between Persuasive Elements and Demographic Factors
Independent samples t-tests and chi-squared analyses were conducted to examine
potential differences between persuasive elements and demographic factors. Prior to the t-tests,
years since certification was assessed for normality and skewness, and the data were non-normal
(skewnessz = 7.87; kurtosisz = 4.13). Due to this violation of normality, the non-parametric
equivalent tests were run for each element (Mann-Whitney U). These analyses showed no
significant difference in the years since certification and the presence of any rhetorical element.
There were some interesting patterns with logos and reciprocity data, however, large variability
(error) obscured the potential for statistical significance. Table 2 shows an overview of these
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results.
Chi-squared tests were performed to examine if there was a significant relationship
between the CMPCs level of education (Master’s vs. Doctoral) and licensure status (yes and no)
with the nine persuasive elements. The results indicated four persuasive elements were
associated with one of these variables with small effects. For instance, there was a significant
small effect for reciprocity with level of education (χ2(n = 219, df = 1) = 4.59, p = 0.032, φ =
.145). Those with Master’s degrees were more likely to have reciprocity within their marketing.
Furthermore, there was a small effect for social proof with level of education (χ2(n = 219, df = 1)
= 5.64, p = 0.031, φ = .145) suggesting that those with Master’s degrees were more likely to
have elements of social proof throughout their online platforms. Next, there was a small
significant effect for both authority with licensure (χ2(n = 219, df = 1) = 5.48, p = 0.034, φ =
.143), and social proof with licensure (χ2(n = 219, df = 1) = 5.64, p = 0.026, φ = .151). These
findings indicated that CMPCs who were licensed were more likely to show elements of
authority but not social proof in their online content. There were other persuasive elements that
were interesting but were not shown to be significant. The summary statistics for this data
between persuasive statistics and licensure are stated in table 3 and table 4.
Rhetorical Examples
The research team identified qualitative examples of each persuasive element generated
from the CMPC professional website and LinkedIn. The examples were drawn verbatim from the
CMPC profiles. Such content was coded as an attempt made by the CMPC to persuade their
services toward prospective clientele and not assessed based on the effectiveness of each
message.
Ethos: The appeal of credibility, trust, character, and reputation of a skilled expert.
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Example 1. “A dynamic speaker and expert steeped in the science of human
performance, she works with Fortune 500 companies, accomplished athletes, organizational
leaders, and anyone else striving to achieve their greatest ambitions.”
Example 2. “Utilizing research-tested techniques and technology to boost performance
for athletes, performers, and business professionals at all levels, I have worked in the sport and
performance field as a coach, educator, trainer, athlete, and consultant for more than 20 years.”
Pathos: The appeal of emotions, values, and imagination of the listener.
Example 1. “What mountains are you currently climbing? Whether it's the corporate or
athletic field, the biggest battle we have is the one against ourselves. I help people get out of their
own way and conquer their own personal mountain. Well, I am here to say that LIFE and
SPORT don't have to feel like such a grind! YOU can take ACTION and get back to what
matters most. It’s not a lack of talent, skill, or will that keep people from reaching their true
potential. It’s a failure to understand and align all the factors—mental, physical, emotional, and
psychological—that underpin true excellence.”
Example 2. “You're an athlete. We know you're dedicated, and we know you're
committed to being your best. We also know that no two athletes are the same. From your
training regimen to the tradeoffs you make, to the pressures and expectations that surround
you—this is your unique journey to become the best athlete you can be. Our mission is simple—
to help every athlete take their performance to the next level.”
Logos: The appeal of reason, order, and logic toward the listener.
Example 1. “Here are some general statistics on sport psychology therapy: 34-45% Elite
athletes experiencing mental health challenges. [2016 journal article cited], 10-20% Athletes
experiencing symptoms of burnout during their career. [2004 journal article cited], 50% NCAA
CMPC PERSUASION 21
athletes that feel comfortable seeking support from a licensed mental health provider on campus.
[2023 journal article cited] 65-75%, Athletes experiencing psychological distress during injury
rehabilitation. [Brewer, B. W., & Petrie, T. A. (2014)]”
Reciprocity: A self-imposed sentiment that people feel instinctively drawn towards returning
favors or repaying obligations as a means to restore balance.
Example 1. “I’m offering a free 30-minute phone consultation to give you an opportunity
to speak with me to get a sense of my approach.”
Commitment/Consistency: A persuasive strategy used to encourage prolonged engagement
with a specific behavior that speaks to a person’s values and self-interests.
Example 1. “Click here to read more about what Mental Skills Training is and how it can
help you perform at your best!”
Example 2. “Learn more below or contact a [CMPC] professional to determine the
service that is right for you.”
Social Proof: People do things that they see other people do and will look for direction and
social reinforcement to support that behavior.
Example 1. “Dr. [CMPC] showed me a different perspective that was practical and made
sense. His approach helped me place at the World Championships and later qualify for the
Olympics. I could not have done it without his help!”
Example 2. “Dr. [CMPC] was there throughout my college and NFL career and was a
big reason I made it to the NFL to live out my dream. He gets players back on track so they can
get back to doing what they do best!”
Authority: People will follow the lead of credible and knowledgeable experts depending on
their initial impression and presence.
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Example 1. “I am a licensed psychologist with a Ph.D. in Counseling Psychology.”
Example 2. "[CMPC] is the author of the Amazon Best Seller, [book title], an awardwinning speaker and host of the top-rated podcast which has over 2 million+ downloads in more
than 120 countries worldwide.”
Example 3. “I am Dr. [CMPC], a Clinical and Sport Psychologist licensed in [State 1]
(License #), [State 2] (License #), [State 3] (License #), and [State 4] (License #).”
Liking: Sharing similar interests and authenticity to engage the listener.
Example 1. “Through my own athletic endeavors and roadblocks, I witnessed firsthand
how important my own psychology played a role in my ability to compete to my full potential.
Whether you are trying to improve your sport performance or are facing any number of personal
struggles, I will provide you with compassionate, genuine, and dedicated care.”
Scarcity: The belief that certain resources are limited or in short supply which influences the
consumer to want services more.
Example 1. “[Screen Pop Up]: Please note the [consultant] practice is currently full. We
are not accepting new clients until May 2024.”
Table 5 depicts more examples of persuasive elements shown in the CMPC subsample.
Although this study did not look directly into the number of common phrases used, many
profiles did include a form of a mission statement and declaration stating that the CMPC would
customize their services based on the needs of the client. Additionally, other common phrases
mirror that of, “My practice is grounded in helping people achieve their goals and live
meaningful lives” and interpreted through the nine elements of persuasion.
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to determine the persuasive messaging of CMPCs and their
CMPC PERSUASION 23
use of online platforms to attract potential clientele. The findings of this study illustrated that
two-thirds of CMPCs had at least one form of social media attached to their AASP profile, most
profiles favoring LinkedIn and a professional website platform. Another major finding was that
authority, ethos, and pathos were the most prominent persuasive components used in the
subsample of CMPCs applying online strategies to market their services.
Key Findings
In connection with the presence of authority and ethos in CMPC profiles, previous
research has highlighted the importance of exhibiting one’s professional status to consumers
(Lubker et al., 2012). These persuasive elements were displayed through the CMPCs’ description
of their advanced degrees, years of experience, job titles, accreditation and licensure from
specific governing organizations, former playing or coaching experiences, and work carried out
with well-known teams or athletes in performance environments. The elements of authority and
ethos were close in meaning as previously identified by other sources in persuasive literature
(Braca & Dondio, 2023; Rabab’ah et al., 2024), often occurring in tandem in a CMPC profile.
For instance, a common sentence structure seen throughout many profiles that included
authority and ethos resembled the statement: “Dr. Jones is a licensed clinical psychologist
[present; authority] with 20 years of experience [past; ethos] working with high performing
athletes and teams, specializing in the latest research of mental skills to help individuals reach
their potential [past/present]”. Forms of authority and ethos appeared in the same way to support
one’s credibility towards its consumers as many profiles showed their professional expertise
upfront by using advanced degrees and titles such as “Ph.D., Associate Professor, Certified
Mental Performance Consultant, or Owner of [consulting practice] LLC.” These findings of
authority and ethos aligned well with other persuasive-centered studies in business, academia,
CMPC PERSUASION 24
and cyber security as researchers found that authority and ethos were popular approaches to
invoke feelings of trust to a wide range of individuals (Akbar, 2014; Oeppen Hill et al., 2020;
Rabab’ah et al., 2024).
It is also possible that consultants used authority and ethos in their messaging because
they sense that potential clients will view them more favorably. Specifically, researchers have
noted that posit